Free climbing Methods and techniques[edit] Both climber and belayer attach the rope to their climbing harness. The rope is tied into the climber's harness with a figure-of-eight loop or double bowline knot. The lead climber typically connects the rope to the protection with carabiners or quickdraws. If the route being climbed is a multi-pitch route the leader sets up a secure anchor system at the top of the pitch, also called a belay, from where s/he can belay as his/her partner climbs. Style[edit] There are no rules per se to free climbing, beyond showing respect for the rock and for other climbers. Over the years, as climbing has become more popular and climbers more skilled, an entire generation of aficionados has been spawned from and with the ethics of climbing gyms and sport climbing. In the newer generation as in previous ones, certain new conventions have emerged as the state of the art changes. Common misunderstandings of the term[edit] The two most common errors are: References[edit]
Liberal democracy A liberal democracy may take various constitutional forms: it may be a constitutional republic, such as France, Germany, India, Ireland, Italy, or the United States, or a constitutional monarchy, such as Japan, Spain, the Netherlands, Canada, or the United Kingdom. It may have a presidential system (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, the United States), a semi-presidential system (France and Russia), or a parliamentary system (Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, Poland, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom). Structure[edit] Liberal democracies usually have universal suffrage, granting all adult citizens the right to vote regardless of race, gender or property ownership. The liberal democratic constitution defines the democratic character of the state. Rights and freedoms[edit] In practice, democracies do have limits on certain freedoms. The common justification for these limits is that they are necessary to guarantee the existence of democracy, or the existence of the freedoms themselves.
Direct Democracy Oligarchy Form of government with small ruling class Throughout history, power structures considered to be oligarchies have often been viewed as coercive, relying on public obedience or oppression to exist. Aristotle pioneered the use of the term as meaning rule by the rich, contrasting it with aristocracy, arguing that oligarchy was the perverted form of aristocracy.[4] The consolidation of power by a dominant religious or ethnic minority can be considered a form of oligarchy.[5] Examples include South Africa during apartheid, Liberia under Americo-Liberians, the Sultanate of Zanzibar,[citation needed] and Rhodesia. In the early 20th century, Robert Michels expanded on this idea in his Iron Law of Oligarchy He argued that even democracies, like all large organizations, tend to become oligarchic due to the necessity of dividing labor, which ultimately results in a ruling class focused on maintaining its power. Putative oligarchies [edit] Intellectual oligarchies Jeffrey A. Politics portal
Democracy ICPD is supporting research conducted by MSS Research (India) to identify the factors responsible for the emergence of democratic governance in Western Europe over the past five hundred years and to correlate the development process in politics with parallel advances in peace, economics, education, social organization and technology. For a complete list of research papers, please see www.mssresearch.org. Social Origins of Democracy Over the past two decades, a democratic revolution has been sweeping the world, starting in Latin America, then spreading through Eastern Europe and most recently across Africa. According to the research organization Freedom House, 117 of the world’s 191 countries are considered democratic. This is a vast increase from even a decade ago. Inspite of its enormous contribution to social development, the process responsible for the emergence and successful adaptation of democratic institutions in society is not yet well understood. Historical Origins of Democracy
Electron beam direct manufacturing Electron beam direct manufacturing, or EBDM for short, is one of many available technologies used to produce a three-dimensional (3D) near net shape[jargon] part or component using an additive layer over layer process, which is commonly referred to as additive manufacturing. EBDM, however, is the first commercially available, large-scale, fully programmable means of achieving near net shape parts.[1] The EBDM process, which has been recently marketed as electron beam freeform fabrication (EBF3), is based on well-established electron beam welding technology that has been used for production processing for nearly 50 years. Process[edit] With the EBDM process, an electron beam gun provides the energy source used for melting metallic feedstock, which is typically wire. Depending on the part being manufactured, deposition rates can range up to 200 cubic inches per hour. As with many layer-additive processes, the EBDM process starts with a 3D CAD model of a part that needs to be produced.
Rechtsstaat -power of the state is limited in order to protect citizens from the arbitrary exercise of authority In a Rechtsstaat, the power of the state is limited in order to protect citizens from the arbitrary exercise of authority. In a Rechtsstaat the citizens share legally-based civil liberties and they can use the courts. A country cannot be a liberal democracy without first being a Rechtsstaat. German stamp (1981). Rechtsstaat, Fundamental Concept of Democracy - "The legislature is bound by the constitutional order, the executive and the judiciary by law and right." (Article 20(3) GG) Immanuel Kant[edit] German writers usually place Immanuel Kant's theories at the beginning of their accounts of the movement toward the Rechtsstaat.[2] The Rechtsstaat in the meaning of "constitutional state" was introduced in the latest works of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) after US and French constitutions were adopted in the late 18th century. "Kant's political teaching may be summarized in a phrase: republican government and international organization. See also[edit] References[edit]
Direct democracy Direct democracy (also known as pure democracy)[1] is a form of democracy in which people decide (e.g. vote on, form consensus on, etc.) policy initiatives directly, as opposed to a representative democracy in which people vote for representatives who then decide policy initiatives.[2] Depending on the particular system in use, it might entail passing executive decisions, the use of sortition, making laws, directly electing or dismissing officials and conducting trials. Two leading forms of direct democracy are participatory democracy and deliberative democracy. Most countries that are representative democracies allow for three forms of political action that provide limited direct democracy: referendum (plebiscite), initiative, and recall[citation needed]. Referendums can include the ability to hold a binding vote on whether a given law should be rejected. History[edit] Modern-era citizen lawmaking began in the towns of Switzerland in the 13th century. Examples[edit] Ancient Athens[edit]
Tyrant Absolute ruler unrestrained by law or constitution A tyrant (from Ancient Greek τύραννος, túrannos), in the modern English-language usage of the word, is an absolute ruler unrestrained by law, or one who has usurped legitimate sovereignty. Often portrayed as cruel, tyrants may defend their position by oppressive means.[1][2] The original Greek term meant an absolute sovereign who came to power without constitutional right,[3] yet the word had a neutral connotation during the Archaic and early Classical periods.[4] However, Greek philosopher Plato saw tyrannos as a negative word, and on account of the decisive influence of philosophy on politics, its negative connotations only increased, continuing into the Hellenistic period. One can apply accusations of tyranny to a variety of types of government: to government by one individual (in an autocracy)to government by a minority (in an oligarchy, tyranny of the minority)to government by a majority (in a democracy, tyranny of the majority)
Democracy Democracy and respect for human rights have long been central components of U.S. foreign policy. Supporting democracy not only promotes such fundamental American values as religious freedom and worker rights, but also helps create a more secure, stable, and prosperous global arena in which the United States can advance its national interests. In addition, democracy is the one national interest that helps to secure all the others. Democratically governed nations are more likely to secure the peace, deter aggression, expand open markets, promote economic development, protect American citizens, combat international terrorism and crime, uphold human and worker rights, avoid humanitarian crises and refugee flows, improve the global environment, and protect human health. With these goals in mind, the United States seeks to: The Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (DRL) is committed to supporting and promoting democracy programs throughout the world.
Apprenticeship The profession of thatching is learned through apprenticeship in Germany Carpentry is another profession learned through apprenticeship Apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study (classroom work and reading). Although the formal boundaries and terminology of the apprentice/journeyman/master system often do not extend outside of guilds and trade unions, the concept of on-the-job training leading to competence over a period of years is found in any field of skilled labor. Development[edit] A medieval baker with his apprentice. The system of apprenticeship first developed in the later Middle Ages and came to be supervised by craft guilds and town governments. In Coventry those completing seven-year apprenticeships with stuff merchants were entitled to become freemen of the city.[3] Analogs at universities and professional development[edit] Australia[edit] Austria[edit] Length[edit]
@timberners_lee Snooping authorities thr... Grèce : la Démocratie C'est en 507 avant J.C. qu'est née la démocratie dans la cité. Les grands principes de ce régime politique (littéralement "gouvernement par et pour le peuple") n'ont aujourd'hui pas changés. À l'époque, environ 40.000 personnes sur les 250.000 qui peuplaient l'Attique étaient des citoyens, c'est à dire qu'il avaient plus de 20 ans, qu'ils étaient de sexe masculin, libres (non-esclaves) et nés de parents athéniens. Ceux-là, et ceux-là seulement, avaient le privilège de siéger à "l'Ecclésia" (l'assemblée du peuple). Comment étaient représentés tous les citoyens ? C'est simple : chaque village s'appellait une dème. Les débats Chaque tribu élisait 50 représentants à l'Ecclésia : ils étaient nommés pour un an. Liturgies et mishtoï Il y avait bien sûr de nombreuses différences de revenus entre les citoyens, car ceux-ci pouvaient aussi bien être médecins qu'agriculteurs. La justice Il y avait à Athènes un tribunal du peuple, appellé l'Héliée. Devoirs du citoyen athénien L'ostracisme
Timocracy Timocracy and property[edit] Solon introduced the ideas of timokratia as a graded oligarchy in his Solonian Constitution for Athens in the early 6th century BC. His was the first known deliberately implemented form of timocracy, allocating political rights and economic responsibility depending on membership of one of four tiers of the population. Pentacosiomedimni – "Men of the 500 bushel", those who produced 500 bushels of produce per year, could serve as generals in the armyHippeis – Knights, those who could equip themselves and one cavalry horse for war, valued at 300 bushels per yearZeugitae – Tillers, owners of at least one pair of beasts of burden, valued at 200 bushels per year, could serve as HoplitesThetes – Manual laborers N. Aristotle later wrote in his Nicomachean Ethics (Book 8, Chapter 10) about three "true political forms" for a state, each of which could appear in corrupt form, becoming one of three negative forms. References[edit] 3.