Type-Token vs. Form-Instantiation. Posted Feb 17, 2013 - 10:48 AM: apokrisis wrote:As Aristotle argued, the forms of things seem a mix of the essential and the accidental. An oak tree is ruled by some deep structural principles - the particular branching pattern and leaf shape dictated by the settings of its regulatory genes - but it is also an accumulation of accidental information, such as wind broken branches, bug chewed leaves, crowding by other trees, etc.So a notion of form needs to be particularised by its essential features, not its accidental. More accurately, a given form needs to defined by separating out what are the essential features; distinguishing what makes this particular tree a tree, and what is accidental to that tree qua tree. Now how does this pan out with tables, dogs, triangles and the good? Which all seem wildly different kinds of forms.Tables and man-made objects seem like real accidents of nature.
Their form is almost entirely down to human choice. Reality has no pure forms. Noam Chomsky - Current Problems in the Study of Language and Mind. Overlearning. Overlearning is the pedagogical theory that practising newly acquired skills beyond the point of initial mastery leads to automaticity. Early studies[edit] Memory researcher Herman Ebbinghaus performed classical overlearning studies in the late 1890's.[1] He noticed that memory for learned material decreased over time (see also forgetting curve). Ebbinghaus recognized that lists of nonsense syllables became more difficult to recall over time, and some lists required more review time to regain 100% recall.
He defined overlearning as the number of repetitions of material after that material can be 100% recalled.[1] Ebbinghaus measured the benefits of overlearning by comparing the ratio of overlearning to saving. Contemporary work[edit] Meta-analysis suggests that overlearning does significantly affect recall over time. Overlearning geography facts and word definitions[edit] Overlearning mathematics[edit] See also[edit] References[edit] ^ Jump up to: a b Murphy, Gardner (1929).
Transformational grammar. In linguistics, a transformational grammar or transformational-generative grammar (TGG) is a generative grammar, especially of a natural language, that has been developed in the syntactic structures of phrase structure grammars (as opposed to dependency grammars). Transformational grammar is the tradition of specific transformational grammars.
Much current research in transformational grammar is inspired by Chomsky's Minimalist Program.[1] Deep structure and surface structure[edit] In 1957, Noam Chomsky published Syntactic Structures, in which he developed the idea that each sentence in a language has two levels of representation — a deep structure and a surface structure.[2][3] The deep structure represented the core semantic relations of a sentence, and was mapped on to the surface structure (which followed the phonological form of the sentence very closely) via transformations. But the fundamental reason for [the] inadequacy of traditional grammars is a more technical one. Phrase structure rules. Phrase structure rules are a way to describe a given language's syntax and are closely associated with the early stages of transformational grammar.[1][2] They are used to break down a natural language sentence into its constituent parts (also known as syntactic categories) namely phrasal categories and lexical categories (aka parts of speech).
A grammar that uses phrase structure rules is a type of phrase structure grammar - except in computer science, where it is known as just a grammar, usually context-free. Phrase structure rules as they are commonly employed operate according to the constituency relation and a grammar that employs phrase structures rules is therefore a constituency grammar and as such, it stands in contrast to dependency grammars, which are based on the dependency relation.[3] Definition[edit] Phrase structure rules are usually of the following form: is separated into the two subconstituents and .
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously Top down[edit] See also[edit]
TRANSLATION - tools. Judaism & Hebrew letters and their meaning. Books.