PHP and Paypal : paypal, php. Project details for PHP File Manager. BUY A HUGE FRESNEL LENS GREEN POWER SCIENCE TM WOULD BE NICE ON THE DISCOVERY NETWORK SOLAR STIRLING ENGINES FRESNEL LENS PARABOLIC MIRROR. History of linguistics. Linguistics as a study endeavors to describe and explain the human faculty of language. In ancient civilization, linguistic study was originally motivated by the correct description of classical liturgical language, notably that of Sanskrit grammar by Pāṇini (fl. 4th century BCE)Tolkappiyam in Tamil, or by the development of logic and rhetoric among Greeks.
Beginning around the 4th century BCE, China also developed its own grammatical traditions and Arabic grammar and Hebrew grammar developed during the Middle Ages. Modern linguistics began to develop in the 18th century, reaching the "golden age of philology" in the 19th century. The first half of the 20th century was marked by the structuralist school, based on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure in Europe and Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield in the United States. Antiquity[edit] Across cultures, the early history of linguistics is associated with a need to disambiguate discourse, especially for ritual texts or in arguments. Semiotics. Semiotics frequently is seen as having important anthropological dimensions; for example, Umberto Eco proposes that every cultural phenomenon may be studied as communication.[2] Some semioticians focus on the logical dimensions of the science, however. They examine areas belonging also to the life sciences – such as how organisms make predictions about, and adapt to, their semiotic niche in the world (see semiosis).
In general, semiotic theories take signs or sign systems as their object of study: the communication of information in living organisms is covered in biosemiotics (including zoosemiotics). Syntactics is the branch of semiotics that deals with the formal properties of signs and symbols.[3] More precisely, syntactics deals with the "rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences".[4] Terminology[edit] Ferdinand de Saussure, however, founded his semiotics, which he called semiology, in the social sciences: History[edit] Formulations[edit] Branches[edit] Notes. Morphology (linguistics) The discipline that deals specifically with the sound changes occurring within morphemes is morphophonology. The history of morphological analysis dates back to the ancient Indian linguist Pāṇini, who formulated the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology in the text Aṣṭādhyāyī by using a constituency grammar.
The Greco-Roman grammatical tradition also engaged in morphological analysis. Studies in Arabic morphology, conducted by Marāḥ al-arwāḥ and Aḥmad b. ‘alī Mas‘ūd, date back to at least 1200 CE.[1] The term "morphology" was coined by August Schleicher in 1859.[2] Here are examples from other languages of the failure of a single phonological word to coincide with a single morphological word form.
Kwixʔid-i-da bəgwanəmai-χ-a q'asa-s-isi t'alwagwayu Morpheme by morpheme translation: kwixʔid-i-da = clubbed-PIVOT-DETERMINER bəgwanəma-χ-a = man-ACCUSATIVE-DETERMINER q'asa-s-is = otter-INSTRUMENTAL-3SG-POSSESSIVE t'alwagwayu = club. "the man clubbed the otter with his club. " (Notation notes: Comparative linguistics. Ethnologue. Ethnologue: Languages of the World is a web-based publication that contains statistics for 7,105 languages and dialects in the 17th edition, released in 2013.[1] Up until the 16th edition in 2009, the publication was a printed volume.
Ethnologue provides information on the number of speakers, location, dialects, linguistic affiliations, availability of the Bible in the language, and an estimate of language viability using EGIDS.[2] As of July 2013, it is the most comprehensive and accessible language catalog, although some information is dated or spurious. A project with similar goals that is still in development is the Linguasphere Observatory Register. Overview[edit] In 1984, the Ethnologue released a three-letter coding system, called an "SIL code", to identify each language that it describes.
This set of codes significantly exceeded the scope of previous standards, e.g., ISO 639-1. What counts as a language depends on socio-linguistic evaluation: see Dialect. Editions[edit] Pronounced names and words ordered by category. Mycenaean Greek. Mycenaean Greek is the most ancient attested form of the Greek language, spoken on the Greek mainland, Crete and Cyprus in the 16th to 12th centuries BC, before the hypothesised Dorian invasion which was often cited as the terminus post quem for the coming of the Greek language to Greece.
The language is preserved in inscriptions in Linear B, a script first attested on Crete before the 14th century BC. Most instances of these inscriptions are on clay tablets found in Knossos in central Crete, and in Pylos in the southwest of the Peloponnese. Other tablets have been found at Mycenae itself, Tiryns and Thebes and at Chania in Western Crete.[1] The language is named after Mycenae, one of the major centres of Mycenaean Greece. The tablets remained long undeciphered, and every conceivable language was suggested for them, until Michael Ventris deciphered the script in 1952 and by a preponderance of evidence proved the language to be an early form of Greek. Orthography[edit] Phonology[edit] Hellenic languages. Hellenic is the branch of the Indo-European language family that includes Greek.[3] In traditional classifications, Hellenic consists of Greek alone,[4][5] but some linguists group Greek together with various ancient languages thought to have been closely related or distinguish varieties of Greek that are distinct enough to be considered separate languages.[6][7] Greek and ancient Macedonian A family under the name "Hellenic" has been suggested to group together Greek proper and the ancient Macedonian language, which is barely attested and whose degree of relatedness to Greek is not well known.
The suggestion of a "Hellenic" group with two branches, in this context, represents the idea that Macedonian was not simply a dialect within Greek but a "sibling language" outside the group of Greek varieties proper.[6][8] Other approaches include Macedonian as a dialect of Greek proper or as an unclassified Paleo-Balkan language. Modern Hellenic languages Language tree Classification See also. Proto-Greek language.
The Proto-Greek language is the assumed last common ancestor of all known varieties of Greek, including Mycenaean, the classical Greek dialects (Attic-Ionic, Aeolic, Doric and Arcado-Cypriot), and ultimately Koine, Byzantine and modern Greek. Some scholars would include the fragmentary ancient Macedonian language, either as descended from an earlier "Proto-Hellenic" language, or by definition including it among the descendants of Proto-Greek as a Hellenic language and/or a Greek dialect.[1] Proto-Greek would have been spoken in the late 3rd millennium BC, most probably in the Balkans. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants, speaking the predecessor of the Mycenaean language, entered the Greek peninsula either around the 21st century BC, or in the 17th century BC at the latest.
Phonology[edit] Proto-Greek changes[edit] The primary sound changes separating Proto-Greek from the Proto-Indo-European language included: Laryngeal changes[edit] Palatalization[edit] Knowledge Media Institute | The Open University.
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