National developmental mythology conservatism, liberalism, and radicalism. Liberalism. Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality.[1] Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally they support ideas such as free and fair elections, civil rights, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, free trade, and private property.[2][3][4][5][6] Etymology and definition[edit] Words such as liberal, liberty, libertarian, and libertine all trace their history to the Latin liber, which means "free".[13] One of the first recorded instances of the word liberal occurs in 1375, when it was used to describe the liberal arts in the context of an education desirable for a free-born man.[13] The word's early connection with the classical education of a medieval university soon gave way to a proliferation of different denotations and connotations.
History[edit] Beginnings[edit] Glorious Revolution[edit] Era of enlightenment[edit] American revolution[edit] Conservatism.
Division of labour. The division of labour is the specialization of cooperating individuals who perform specific tasks and roles. Because of the large amount of labour saved by giving workers specialized tasks in Industrial Revolution-era factories, some classical economists as well as some mechanical engineers such as Charles Babbage were proponents of division of labour. Also, having workers perform single or limited tasks eliminated the long training period required to train craftsmen, who were replaced with lesser paid but more productive unskilled workers.[1] Historically, an increasingly complex division of labour is associated with the growth of total output and trade, the rise of capitalism, and of the complexity of industrialised processes.
The concept and implementation of division of labour has been observed in ancient Sumerian (Mesopotamian) culture, where assignment of jobs in some cities coincided with an increase in trade and economic interdependence. Theorists[edit] Plato[edit] Friedrich A. Systems theory. Systems theory is the interdisciplinary study of systems in general, with the goal of elucidating principles that can be applied to all types of systems at all nesting levels in all fields of research.
[citation needed] The term does not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a specialization of systems thinking; alternatively as a goal output of systems science and systems engineering, with an emphasis on generality useful across a broad range of systems (versus the particular models of individual fields). A central topic of systems theory is self-regulating systems, i.e. systems self-correcting through feedback. Self-regulating systems are found in nature, including the physiological systems of our body, in local and global ecosystems, and in climate—and in human learning processes (from the individual on up through international organizations like the UN).[3] Overview[edit] Examples of applications[edit] Systems biology[edit] Neolithic Revolution.
However, the Neolithic Revolution involved far more than the adoption of a limited set of food-producing techniques. During the next millennia it would transform the small and mobile groups of hunter-gatherers that had hitherto dominated human history into sedentary societies based in built-up villages and towns, which radically modified their natural environment by means of specialized food-crop cultivation (e.g., irrigation and food storage technologies) that allowed extensive surplus food production. These developments provided the basis for high population density settlements, specialized and complex labor diversification, trading economies, the development of non-portable art, architecture, and culture, centralized administrations and political structures, hierarchical ideologies, and depersonalized systems of knowledge (e.g., property regimes and writing). Agricultural transition[edit] Knap of Howar farmstead on a site occupied from 5,500 to 5,100 BP Domestication of plants[edit]
War cycles. The theory of war cycles holds that wars happen in cycles. The cycles of war[edit] The forerunner of the study of war cycles was Edward R Dewey, with Quincy Wright's monumental A Study of War adding impetus to the discipline. [citation needed] The credibility of the study of cycles was frequently questioned,[by whom?] As this type of inquiry attracts persons with marginal credibility and interest in paranormal issues which may lead to highly subjective conclusions.
However, with advent of data science particularly computer algorithms minimizing the dampening effect affecting the abstracted oscillations and facilitating the detection of stochastic drifts, the study of cycles is subject to renewed interest.[1][original research?] [not in citation given] Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Comparative studies[edit] Quantitative studies of bellicosity of the Western civilization and the Confucian civilization of the East was pioneered by Lewis Fry Richardson.
See also[edit] Notes[edit] References[edit] Systemography. Systemography or SGR [1] is a process where phenomena regarded as complex are purposefully represented as a constructed model of a general system. It maybe used in three different roles: conceptualization, analysis, and simulation. The work of Jean-Louis Le Moigne is associated with systemography.[1] The systemography modeling consists of building, simultaneously, the process´ operational, the informational and the decisional systemographs in modeling phase. Ettore Bresciani Filho (2001) recommends the following order in the systemography modeling: The elaboration of the operational systemographs (presenting the operations involved in the process), of the informational systemographs (where the information flow is highlighted) and of the decisional systemographs (where the decisions are shown) allows, during the activity analysis, to evaluate it and to improve it. History[edit] See also[edit] References[edit] [1][2]BRESCIANI FILHO, Ettore.
Systems philosophy. Systems Philosophy is a discipline aimed at constructing a new philosophy (in the sense of worldview) by using systems concepts. The discipline was founded by Ervin Laszlo in 1972 with his book Introduction to Systems Philosophy: Toward a New Paradigm of Contemporary Thought.[1] It has been described as the "reorientation of thought and world view ensuing from the introduction of "systems" as a new scientific paradigm".[2] Overview[edit] Soon after Laszlo founded Systems Philosophy it was placed in context by Ludwig von Bertalanffy, one of the founders of General System Theory, when he categorized three domains within the Systemics namely: Systems Philosophy consists of four main areas: The term "Systems Philosophy" is often used as a convenient shorthand to refer to "the philosophy of systems" (e.g. here), but this usage can be misleading.
Origin and development of Systems Philosophy[edit] The Founding of Systems Philosophy[edit] Laszlo and Evolutionary Futures[edit] Perspectivism vs. Sociocybernetics. Sociocybernetics is an independent chapter of science in sociology based upon the General Systems Theory and cybernetics. It also has a basis in Organizational Development (OD) consultancy practice and in Theories of Communication, theories of psychotherapies and computer sciences. The International Sociological Association has a specialist research committee in the area – RC51 – which publishes the (electronic) Journal of Sociocybernetics.
The term "socio" in the name of sociocybernetics refers to any social system (as defined, among others, by Talcott Parsons and Niklas Luhmann). The idea to study society as a system can be traced back to the origin of sociology when the emergent idea of functional differentiation has been applied for the first time to society by Auguste Comte. Sociocybernetics analyzes social 'forces'[edit] Sociocybernetics aims to generate a general theoretical framework for understanding cooperative behavior. [edit] A. Issues and challenges[edit] See also[edit] Social cycle theory. Social cycle theories are among the earliest social theories in sociology.
Unlike the theory of social evolutionism, which views the evolution of society and human history as progressing in some new, unique direction(s), sociological cycle theory argues that events and stages of society and history are generally repeating themselves in cycles. Such a theory does not necessarily imply that there cannot be any social progress. In the early theory of Sima Qian and the more recent theories of long-term ("secular") political-demographic cycles[1] as well as in the Varnic theory of P.R.
Sarkar an explicit accounting is made of social progress. Predecessors[edit] Interpretation of history as repeating cycles of Dark and Golden Ages was a common belief among ancient cultures.[2] Classical theories[edit] Among the prominent historiosophers, Russian philosopher Nikolai Danilewski (1822–1885) is important. Sociological cycle theory was also developed by Pitirim A. Modern theories[edit] See also[edit] List of cycles. Globalization. Globalisation (or globalization) is the process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture.[1][2] Advances in transportation and telecommunications infrastructure, including the rise of the telegraph and its posterity the Internet, are major factors in globalization, generating further interdependence of economic and cultural activities.[3] Though scholars place the origins of globalization in modern times, others trace its history long before the European age of discovery and voyages to the New World.
Some even trace the origins to the third millennium BCE.[4][5] In the late 19th century and early 20th century, the connectedness of the world's economies and cultures grew very quickly. Overview[edit] Humans have interacted over long distances for thousands of years. Airline personnel from the "Jet set" age, circa 1960.
Etymology and usage[edit] Sociologists Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King define globalization as: Immanuel Wallerstein. Immanuel Maurice Wallerstein (New York City, September 28, 1930), is an American sociologist, historical social scientist, and world-systems analyst. His bimonthly commentaries on world affairs are syndicated.[1] Early Life, Education, and Academic Career[edit] Wallerstein's academic and professional career begin at Columbia University where he started as an instructor and became an associate professor of sociology between 1958 to 1971.[3] During his time there, he also served as a prominent supporter of the students during the Columbia University protests of 1968.[4] By 1971, he moved to Montreal where he taught at McGill University for five years.[3] In 1973 he was president of the African Studies Association and as of 1976, he served as a distinguished professor of sociology at Binghamton University until his retirement in 1999.
He also became head of the Fernand Braudel Center for the Study of Economies, Historical Systems and Civilization at Binghamton University until 2005.[5] North-South divide. The three worlds as they were separated during the Cold War era, each with its respective allies as of the period between 30 April 1975 (the fall of Saigon) and 23 August 1975 (the communist takeover in Laos). Colors do not represent current economic development. First World: United States, United Kingdom and their allies.
The North–South divide is broadly considered a socio-economic and political divide. Generally, definitions of the North include the United States, Canada, developed parts of Europe, and East Asia. The South is made up of Africa, Latin America, and developing Asia including the Middle East. "The North" mostly covers the West and the First World, along with much of the Second World. History[edit] The idea of categorizing countries by their economic and developmental status began during the Cold War with the classifications of East and West.
Problems with defining the divide[edit] Development gap[edit] World map by quartiles of Human Development Index in 2011. See also[edit] World-systems theory. A world map of countries by trading status, late 20th century, using the world system differentiation into core countries (blue), semi-periphery countries (purple) and periphery countries (red). Based on the list in Dunn, Kawana, Brewer (2000). World-systems theory (also known as world-systems analysis or the world-systems perspective),[1] a multidisciplinary, macro-scale approach to world history and social change, emphasizes the world-system (and not nation states) as the primary (but not exclusive) unit of social analysis.[1][2] Background[edit] Immanuel Wallerstein has developed the best-known version of world-systems analysis, beginning in the 1970s.[4][5] Wallerstein traces the rise of the capitalist world-economy from the "long" sixteenth century (c. 1450-1640). Many other scholars have contributed significant work in this "knowledge movement".[2] Origins[edit] Influences and major thinkers[edit] World-systems theory was aiming to replace modernization theory.
Dependency theory[edit] Core countries. A world map of countries by trading status, late 20th century, using the world system differentiation into core countries (blue), semi-periphery countries (purple) and periphery countries (red). Based on the list in Dunn, Kawana, Brewer (2000). In World Systems Theory, the core countries are the industrialized capitalist countries on which periphery countries and semi-periphery countries depend. Core countries control and benefit from the global market. They are usually recognized as wealthy nations with a wide variety of resources and are in a favorable location compared to other states. They have strong state institutions, a powerful military and powerful global political alliances. Core countries do not always stay core permanently.
Throughout history, core nations have been changing and new ones have been added to the core list. Definition[edit] Core countries control and profit the most from the world system, and thus they are the "core" of the world system. Throughout history[edit] Semi-periphery countries. A world map of countries by trading status, late 20th century, using the world system differentiation into core countries (blue), semi-periphery countries (purple) and periphery countries (red). Based on the list in Dunn, Kawana, Brewer (2000). In world-systems theory, the semi-periphery countries (sometimes referred to as just the semi-periphery) are the industrializing, mostly capitalist countries which are positioned between the periphery and core countries.
Semi-periphery countries have organizational characteristics of both core countries and periphery countries and are often geographically located between core and peripheral regions as well as between two or more competing core regions.[1] Semi-periphery regions play a major role in mediating economic, political, and social activities that link core and peripheral areas.[1] Sociological theory[edit] Function[edit] Energy and mineral resources History and development[edit] 13th century[edit] 1300-1450[edit] 1450-1700[edit] 1700-1875[edit]
Periphery countries.