International Monetary Fund Home Page World Bank The World Bank is a United Nations international financial institution that provides loans[3] to developing countries for capital programs. The World Bank is a component of the World Bank Group, and a member of the United Nations Development Group. Composition[edit] World Bank[edit] The World Bank is composed of two institutions: World Bank Group[edit] The World Bank should not be confused with the United Nations World Bank Group, a member of the United Nations Economic and Social Council, and a family of five international organizations that make leveraged loans to poor countries which is comprised of the:[6] History[edit] The World Bank was created at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference, along with three other institutions, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations.[8]:52–54 1944–1968[edit] 1968–1980[edit]
Suippes Géographie[modifier | modifier le code] Suippes se situe à l'est du département de la Marne, dans une région géographique que l'on appelle « la Champagne crayeuse » (jadis « Champagne pouilleuse » par opposition à la Champagne des vignes et des viticulteurs). Cette région a bénéficié de l'essor d'une agriculture productiviste aux lendemains de la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Le rôle stratégique de la Champagne a aussi permis l'installation et le développement d'équipements militaires : le camp de Suippes est le deuxième camp militaire de France en superficie, ainsi que le camp de Mourmelon qui se trouve de l'autre côté de Suippes La commune a aussi abrité un centre de test des fusées Véronique avec cinq lancers effectués entre 1950 et 1951. Toponymie[modifier | modifier le code] Histoire[modifier | modifier le code] La devise de la ville est « Pax Lana et Aratro », la paix par la laine et de la charrue. Politique et administration[modifier | modifier le code] Bronze industriel.
Tragedy of the commons Self-interests causing depletion of a shared resource The tragedy of the commons is a metaphoric label for a concept that is widely discussed, and criticised, in economics, ecology and other sciences. According to the concept, should a number of people enjoy unfettered access to a finite, valuable resource such as a pasture, they will tend to over-use it, and may end up destroying its value altogether. Even if some users exercised voluntary restraint, the other users would merely supplant them, the predictable result being a tragedy for all. The metaphor is the title of a 1968 essay by ecologist Garrett Hardin. As another example, he cited a watercourse which all are free to pollute. The principal concern of Hardin's essay was overpopulation of the planet. Some scholars have argued that over-exploitation of the common resource is by no means inevitable, since the individuals concerned may be able to achieve mutual restraint by consensus. Expositions[edit] Classical[edit] Application[edit]
Intergovernmental organization An intergovernmental organization (or international governmental organization; IGO) is an organization composed primarily of sovereign states (referred to as member states), or of other intergovernmental organizations. Intergovernmental organizations are often called international organizations, although that term may also include international nongovernmental organization such as international nonprofit organizations or multinational corporations. Intergovernmental organizations are an important aspect of public international law. Intergovernmental organizations in a legal sense should be distinguished from simple groupings or coalitions of states, such as the G8 or the Quartet. Intergovernmental organizations must also be distinguished from treaties. Types and purposes[edit] Intergovernmental organizations differ in function, membership and membership criteria. Some organizations, such as NATO, have collective security or mutual defense provisions. Examples[edit] United Nations[edit]
Bank for International Settlements The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) is an international financial institution[2] owned by central banks which "fosters international monetary and financial cooperation and serves as a bank for central banks".[3] The BIS carries out its work through its meetings, programmes and through the Basel Process – hosting international groups pursuing global financial stability and facilitating their interaction. It also provides banking services, but only to central banks and other international organizations. It is based in Basel, Switzerland, with representative offices in Hong Kong and Mexico City. History[edit] BIS main building in Basel, Switzerland The BIS was established in 1930 by an intergovernmental agreement between Germany, Belgium, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, Japan, the United States, and Switzerland.[4][5] It opened its doors in Basel, Switzerland, on 17 May 1930. The BIS's original task of facilitating World War I reparation payments quickly became obsolete.
Chadli Bendjedid Cet article ou cette section d'une biographie doit être recyclé. (indiquez la date de pose grâce au paramètre date) Une réorganisation et une clarification du contenu est nécessaire. Discutez des points à améliorer en page de discussion. Chadli Bendjedid, souvent appelé simplement par son prénom Chadli[1],[2],[3] (en arabe : شاذلي بن جديد, Shâdhlî Bin Jadîd), né le à Seba'a, dans la commune de Bouteldja (Wilaya d'El Tarf), dans le nord-est de l'Algérie (alors colonie française), et mort le à l'hôpital militaire Aïn Naâdja d'Alger[4], est un colonel, écrivain et homme d'État algérien. Militaire de carrière, membre du conseil de la Révolution de à , son accession à la magistrature suprême est décidée par le conclave du Parti unique, ainsi il fut le troisième président de la République algérienne démocratique et populaire, du jusqu'à sa démission le . Biographie[modifier | modifier le code] Guerre d'Algérie[modifier | modifier le code] Carrière militaire[modifier | modifier le code]
Free rider problem In economics, the free rider problem occurs when those who benefit from resources, goods, or services do not pay for them, which results in an under-provision of those goods or services.[1] The free rider problem is the question of how to limit free riding and its negative effects in these situations. The free rider problem may occur when property rights are not clearly defined and imposed.[2] An opposite concept is that of a forced rider. Although the term "free rider" was first used in economic theory of public goods, similar concepts have been applied to other contexts, including collective bargaining, antitrust law, psychology and political science.[citation needed] For example, some individuals in a team or community may reduce their contributions or performance if they believe that one or more other members of the group may free ride.[3] In a labor union, free riding occurs if an employee pays no union dues or agency shop fees, but benefits from union representation. Notes[edit]
Human Development Reports (HDR) – United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Central bank The primary function of a central bank is to manage the nation's money supply (monetary policy), through active duties such as managing interest rates, setting the reserve requirement, and acting as a lender of last resort to the banking sector during times of bank insolvency or financial crisis. Central banks usually also have supervisory powers, intended to prevent bank runs and to reduce the risk that commercial banks and other financial institutions engage in reckless or fraudulent behavior. Central banks in most developed nations are institutionally designed to be independent from political interference.[4][5] Still, limited control by the executive and legislative bodies usually exists.[6][7] The chief executive of a central bank is normally known as the Governor, President or Chairman. History[edit] Prior to the 17th century most money was commodity money, typically gold or silver. Bank of England[edit] The sealing of the Bank of England Charter (1694). Spread around the world[edit]
Pieds-noirs Un symbole : Notre-Dame d'Afrique. Le nom « pieds-noirs » désigne les Français originaires d'Algérie et, par extension, les Français d'ascendance européenne installés en Afrique française du Nord jusqu'à l'indépendance, c'est-à-dire jusqu'en mars 1956 pour les protectorats français de Tunisie et du Maroc, jusqu'en juillet 1962 pour l'Algérie française, et au-delà pour ceux qui y sont restés après l’indépendance des trois pays[2],[3]. Définitions de « pied-noir »[modifier | modifier le code] Deux définitions qui s'opposent de « pied-noir » indiquent assez bien l'imprécision de ce terme. D'après le Larousse, « pied-noir » (et « pieds-noirs ») est un nom et un adjectif qui signifie : « Français d'origine européenne installé en Afrique du Nord jusqu'à l'époque de l'indépendance[4]. » D'après le Grand Robert de la langue française, « pied-noir » est un nom masculin, dont le sens moderne, apparu vers 1955, est L'origine de l'expression fait l'objet de plusieurs hypothèses. « Je suis Pied-Gris.
Corporatism Political ideology which advocates the organization of society by corporate groups Corporatism does not refer to a political system dominated by large business interests, even though the latter are commonly referred to as "corporations" in modern American vernacular and legal parlance. Instead, the correct term for that theoretical system would be corporatocracy. The terms "corporatocracy" and "corporatism" are often confused due to their similar names and to the use of corporations as organs of the state.[citation needed] Corporatism developed during the 1850s in response to the rise of classical liberalism and Marxism, and advocated cooperation between the classes instead of class conflict. Kinship corporatism [edit] Kinship-based corporatism emphasizing clan, ethnic and family identification has been a common phenomenon in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Politics and political economy Communitarian corporatism Early concepts of corporatism evolved in Classical Greece. Liberal corporatism
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization established on 24 October 1945 to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was created following the Second World War to prevent another such conflict. At its founding, the UN had 51 member states; there are now 193. The UN Headquarters is situated in Manhattan, New York City and enjoys extraterritoriality. During the Second World War, US President Franklin D. The UN has six principal organs: the General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security); the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) (for promoting international economic and social co-operation and development); the Secretariat (for providing studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ); and the United Nations Trusteeship Council (inactive since 1994).
Fractional-reserve banking Fractional-reserve banking is the practice whereby a bank holds reserves in an amount equal to only a portion of the amount of its customers' deposits to satisfy potential demands for withdrawals. Reserves are held at the bank as currency, or as deposits reflected in the bank's accounts at the central bank. Because bank deposits are usually considered money in their own right, fractional-reserve banking permits the money supply to grow to a multiple (called the money multiplier) of the underlying reserves of base money originally created by the central bank.[1][2] Fractional-reserve banking is the current form of banking in all countries worldwide.[3] History[edit] Fractional-reserve banking predates the existence of governmental monetary authorities and originated many centuries ago in bankers' realization that generally not all depositors demand payment at the same time.[4] How it works[edit] In most legal systems, a bank deposit is not a bailment. Economic function[edit] Formula[edit]