Observation Active acquisition of information from a primary source Science[edit] The scientific method requires observations of natural phenomena to formulate and test hypotheses.[3] It consists of the following steps:[4][5] Human senses are limited and subject to errors in perception, such as optical illusions. Scientific instruments were developed to aid human abilities of observation, such as weighing scales, clocks, telescopes, microscopes, thermometers, cameras, and tape recorders, and also translate into perceptible form events that are unobservable by the senses, such as indicator dyes, voltmeters, spectrometers, infrared cameras, oscilloscopes, interferometers, Geiger counters, and radio receivers. Considered as a physical process itself, all forms of observation (human or instrumental) involve amplification and are thus thermodynamically irreversible processes, increasing entropy. Paradoxes[edit] Biases[edit] Confirmation bias[edit] Processing bias[edit] Philosophy[edit] See also[edit]
Knowledge Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception, communication, and reasoning; while knowledge is also said to be related to the capacity of acknowledgment in human beings.[2] Theories of knowledge[edit] In contrast to this approach, Wittgenstein observed, following Moore's paradox, that one can say "He believes it, but it isn't so," but not "He knows it, but it isn't so." [5] He goes on to argue that these do not correspond to distinct mental states, but rather to distinct ways of talking about conviction. What is different here is not the mental state of the speaker, but the activity in which they are engaged. Communicating knowledge[edit] Symbolic representations can be used to indicate meaning and can be thought of as a dynamic process. Media theorists like Andrew Robinson emphasise that the visual depiction of knowledge in the modern world was often seen as being 'truer' than oral knowledge. Situated knowledge[edit] Partial knowledge[edit]
Lists of countries and territories This list is incomplete. You can help by expanding it This is a list of many lists of countries and territories by various definitions, including FIFA countries, federations, and fictional countries. A country or territory is a geographical area, either in the sense of nation (a cultural entity) or state (a political entity).[1] List of countries by name Demographics[edit] The characteristics of the human population: Economy[edit] Map of amount of exports per country The production, distribution and consumption of goods and services: Gross domestic product[edit] The value of goods and services produced within a country: Industrial output[edit] Agriculture[edit] Environment[edit] The physical, chemical, and biotic factors that act upon an ecosystem: Geography[edit] The Earth and its features: Human rights[edit] International standards[edit] List of ISO 3166 country codes Military[edit] Military spending in percent of GDP 2014 Names[edit] The label for the country: Politics[edit] Sports[edit] Tourism[edit]
Mental representation Hypothetical internal cognitive symbol that represents external reality A mental representation (or cognitive representation), in philosophy of mind, cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive science, is a hypothetical internal cognitive symbol that represents external reality or its abstractions.[1][2] Mental representation is the mental imagery of things that are not actually present to the senses.[3] In contemporary philosophy, specifically in fields of metaphysics such as philosophy of mind and ontology, a mental representation is one of the prevailing ways of explaining and describing the nature of ideas and concepts. Mental representations (or mental imagery) enable representing things that have never been experienced as well as things that do not exist.[4] Our brains and mental imageries allow us to imagine things have either never happened or are impossible and do not exist. Representational theories of mind[edit] Canadian philosopher P. Responses[edit] Philosophers[edit]
Sense Five senses and the respective sensory organs An allegory of five senses. Still Life by Pieter Claesz, 1623. A sense is a physiological capacity of organisms that provides data for perception. Humans have a multitude of senses. Definition[edit] A broadly acceptable definition of a sense would be "A system that consists of a group of sensory cell types that responds to a specific physical phenomenon, and that corresponds to a particular group of regions within the brain where the signals are received and interpreted." The senses are frequently divided into exteroceptive and interoceptive: Exteroceptive senses are senses that perceive the body's own position, motion, and state, known as proprioceptive senses. Non-human animals may possess senses that are absent in humans, such as electroreception and detection of polarized light. In Buddhist philosophy, Ayatana or "sense-base" includes the mind as a sense organ, in addition to the traditional five. Traditional senses[edit] Sight[edit]
List of timelines From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This is a list of timelines currently on Wikipedia. §Types[edit] §General timelines[edit] §History[edit] §Arts[edit] §Biographical timelines[edit] §Crime[edit] §Events[edit] §Disasters[edit] §Economics[edit] §Entertainment[edit] §Environmental issues[edit] §Fiction[edit] §Geographical timelines[edit] Timeline of country and capital changes §Ancient civilizations[edit] §Extant civilizations[edit] §Supranational entities and regions, peoples[edit] §Sovereign states[edit] §Subnational regions and cities, narrow timelines[edit] §Law[edit] §Military[edit] §Military conflicts[edit] §Philosophy[edit] §Politics[edit] §Religion[edit] §Ayyavazhi[edit] Timeline of Ayyavazhi history (1809–present) §Buddhism[edit] Timeline of Buddhism (563 BCE – present) §Christianity[edit] §Islam[edit] §Jainism[edit] Timeline of Jainism §Judaism[edit] §Sikhism[edit] Sikh Gurus (1469–1666) §Science[edit] §Astronautics and planetary science[edit] §Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology[edit] §Biology[edit] §Sports[edit]
Empirical evidence Knowledge acquired by means of the senses Empirical evidence for a proposition is evidence, i.e. what supports or counters this proposition, that is constituted by or accessible to sense experience or experimental procedure. Empirical evidence is of central importance to the sciences and plays a role in various other fields, like epistemology and law. Scientific evidence is closely related to empirical evidence but not all forms of empirical evidence meet the standards dictated by scientific methods. Some philosophers restrict evidence even further, for example, to only conscious, propositional or factive mental states.[2] Restricting evidence to conscious mental states has the implausible consequence that many simple everyday beliefs would be unjustified. A thing is evidence for a proposition if it epistemically supports this proposition or indicates that the supported proposition is true. Knowledge a posteriori and a priori [edit] Empiricism and rationalism Scientific evidence
History Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.[1] History (from Greek ἱστορία, historia, meaning "inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation")[2] is the study of the past, particularly how it relates to humans.[3][4] It is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians. Events occurring prior to written record are considered prehistory. History can also refer to the academic discipline which uses a narrative to examine and analyse a sequence of past events, and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect that determine them.[5][6] Historians sometimes debate the nature of history and its usefulness by discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing "perspective" on the problems of the present.[5][7][8][9] Etymology Description Historiography
List of symbols This is a list of graphical signs, icons, and symbols. Languages[edit] Many (but not all) graphemes that are part of a writing system that encodes a full spoken language are included in the Unicode standard, which also includes graphical symbols. See: The remainder of this list focuses on graphemes not part of spoken language-encoding systems. Basic communication[edit] Scientific and engineering symbols[edit] Consumer symbols[edit] Various currency signs (sublist) [edit] Hazards[edit] Food[edit] Kosher symbols General consumer products[edit] Property and pricing[edit] Technology symbols[edit] [edit] Religious and mystical symbols[edit] A subset has been used as United States Department of Veterans Affairs emblems for headstones and markers. A[edit] B[edit] C[edit] D[edit] E[edit] F[edit] G[edit] H[edit] I[edit] K[edit] L[edit] M[edit] N[edit] O[edit] Ouroboros P[edit] Q[edit] Quincunx R[edit] S[edit] T[edit] U[edit] Urantia symbols V[edit] W[edit] Y[edit] Heraldic symbols[edit] Vexillological symbols (flags)[edit] Other[edit]
Belief Mental state of holding a proposition or premise to be true Beliefs are the subject of various important philosophical debates. Notable examples include: "What is the rational way to revise one's beliefs when presented with various sorts of evidence?", "Is the content of our beliefs entirely determined by our mental states, or do the relevant facts have any bearing on our beliefs (e.g. if I believe that I'm holding a glass of water, is the non-mental fact that water is H2O part of the content of that belief)?", "How fine-grained or coarse-grained are our beliefs?" Various conceptions of the essential features of beliefs have been proposed, but there is no consensus as to which is the right one. Representationalism [edit] Representationalism characterizes beliefs in terms of mental representations. There are different ways of conceiving how mental representations are realized in the mind. Interpretationism can be combined with eliminativism and instrumentalism about beliefs. Rules.
Organism Prokaryotes are represented by two separate domains, the Bacteria and Archaea. Etymology[edit] The term "organism" (from Greek ὀργανισμός, organismos, from ὄργανον, organon, i.e. "instrument, implement, tool, organ of sense or apprehension"[3][4]) first appeared in the English language in 1703 and took on its current definition by 1834 (Oxford English Dictionary). There has been a great deal of recent controversy about the best way to define the organism[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13] and indeed about whether or not such a definition is necessary.[14][15] Several contributions[16] are responses to the suggestion that the category of "organism" may well not be adequate in biology.[17] Semantics[edit] The word organism may broadly be defined as an assembly of molecules functioning as a more or less stable whole that exhibits the properties of life. A superorganism is an organism consisting of many individuals working together as a single functional or social unit. Non-cellular life[edit]
List of numbers Notable numbers Natural numbers[edit] , Unicode U+2115 ℕ DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL N). The inclusion of 0 in the set of natural numbers is ambiguous and subject to individual definitions. In set theory and computer science, 0 is typically considered a natural number. Mathematical significance[edit] Natural numbers may have properties specific to the individual number or may be part of a set (such as prime numbers) of numbers with a particular property. List of mathematically significant natural numbers Cultural or practical significance[edit] Along with their mathematical properties, many integers have cultural significance[2] or are also notable for their use in computing and measurement. List of integers notable for their cultural meanings List of integers notable for their use in units, measurements and scales List of integers notable in computing Classes of natural numbers[edit] Prime numbers[edit] A prime number is a positive integer which has exactly two divisors: 1 and itself. Integers[edit]
Cognitive science Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes.[1] It examines what cognition is, what it does and how it works. It includes research on intelligence and behavior, especially focusing on how information is represented, processed, and transformed (in faculties such as perception, language, memory, reasoning, and emotion) within nervous systems (human or other animal) and machines (e.g. computers). Cognitive science consists of multiple research disciplines, including psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology.[2] It spans many levels of analysis, from low-level learning and decision mechanisms to high-level logic and planning; from neural circuitry to modular brain organization. Principles[edit] Levels of analysis[edit] Interdisciplinary nature[edit] Cognitive science: the term[edit] Scope[edit] Cognitive science is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition. "... Attention[edit]