Oligarchy Form of government with small ruling class Throughout history, power structures considered to be oligarchies have often been viewed as coercive, relying on public obedience or oppression to exist. Aristotle pioneered the use of the term as meaning rule by the rich, contrasting it with aristocracy, arguing that oligarchy was the perverted form of aristocracy.[4] The consolidation of power by a dominant religious or ethnic minority can be considered a form of oligarchy.[5] Examples include South Africa during apartheid, Liberia under Americo-Liberians, the Sultanate of Zanzibar,[citation needed] and Rhodesia. In the early 20th century, Robert Michels expanded on this idea in his Iron Law of Oligarchy He argued that even democracies, like all large organizations, tend to become oligarchic due to the necessity of dividing labor, which ultimately results in a ruling class focused on maintaining its power. Putative oligarchies [edit] Intellectual oligarchies Jeffrey A. Politics portal
Tyrant Absolute ruler unrestrained by law or constitution A tyrant (from Ancient Greek τύραννος, túrannos), in the modern English-language usage of the word, is an absolute ruler unrestrained by law, or one who has usurped legitimate sovereignty. Often portrayed as cruel, tyrants may defend their position by oppressive means.[1][2] The original Greek term meant an absolute sovereign who came to power without constitutional right,[3] yet the word had a neutral connotation during the Archaic and early Classical periods.[4] However, Greek philosopher Plato saw tyrannos as a negative word, and on account of the decisive influence of philosophy on politics, its negative connotations only increased, continuing into the Hellenistic period. One can apply accusations of tyranny to a variety of types of government: to government by one individual (in an autocracy)to government by a minority (in an oligarchy, tyranny of the minority)to government by a majority (in a democracy, tyranny of the majority)
Timocracy Timocracy and property[edit] Solon introduced the ideas of timokratia as a graded oligarchy in his Solonian Constitution for Athens in the early 6th century BC. His was the first known deliberately implemented form of timocracy, allocating political rights and economic responsibility depending on membership of one of four tiers of the population. Pentacosiomedimni – "Men of the 500 bushel", those who produced 500 bushels of produce per year, could serve as generals in the armyHippeis – Knights, those who could equip themselves and one cavalry horse for war, valued at 300 bushels per yearZeugitae – Tillers, owners of at least one pair of beasts of burden, valued at 200 bushels per year, could serve as HoplitesThetes – Manual laborers N. Aristotle later wrote in his Nicomachean Ethics (Book 8, Chapter 10) about three "true political forms" for a state, each of which could appear in corrupt form, becoming one of three negative forms. References[edit] 3.
Aristocracy Aristocracy (Greek ἀριστοκρατία aristokratía, from ἄριστος aristos 'excellent', and κράτος, kratos 'rule') is a form of government that places strength in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class.[1] The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning 'rule of the best'.[2] In practice, aristocracy often leads to hereditary government, after which the hereditary monarch appoints officers as they see fit. However, the term was first used by ancient Greeks such as Aristotle and Plato, who used it to describe a system where only the best of the citizens, chosen through a careful process of selection, would become rulers, and hereditary rule would actually have been forbidden, unless the rulers' children performed best and were better endowed with the attributes that make a person fit to rule compared with every other citizen in the polity.[3][4][5] Hereditary rule is more related to Oligarchy, a corrupted form of Aristocracy where there is rule by a few, but not by the best.
Allegory of the cave Allegory by Plato In the allegory "The Cave," Plato describes a group of people who have lived chained to the wall of a cave all their lives, facing a blank wall. The people watch shadows projected on the wall from objects passing in front of a fire behind them and give names to these shadows. The shadows are the prisoners' reality, but are not accurate representations of the real world. The shadows represent the fragment of reality that we can normally perceive through our senses, while the objects under the sun represent the true forms of objects that we can only perceive through reason. Three higher levels exist: the natural sciences; mathematics, geometry, and deductive logic; and the theory of forms. Socrates explains how the philosopher is like a prisoner who is freed from the cave and comes to understand that the shadows on the wall are actually not the direct source of the images seen. Summary[edit] Allegory of the cave. Imprisonment in the cave[edit] Departure from the cave[edit]
Sparta City-state in ancient Greece Coordinates: Sparta was unique in ancient Greece for its social system and constitution, which were supposedly introduced by the semi-mythical legislator Lycurgus. His laws configured the Spartan society to maximize military proficiency at all costs, focusing all social institutions on military training and physical development. The inhabitants of Sparta were stratified as Spartiates (Spartan citizens with full rights), mothakes (non-Spartan free men raised as Spartans), perioikoi (free residents engaged in commerce), and helots (state-owned serfs, enslaved non-Spartan locals). Sparta was frequently a subject of fascination in its own day, as well as in Western culture following the revival of classical learning. Sparta had a double effect on Greek thought: through the reality, and through the myth.... Names The residents of Sparta were often called Lacedaemonians. Lakedaimona was until 2006 the name of a province in the modern Greek prefecture of Laconia.
Dialectic Discourse method for resolving disagreement by reasoned argument Dialectic (Greek: διαλεκτική, dialektikḗ; related to dialogue; German: Dialektik), also known as the dialectical method, is a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to establish the truth through reasoned argumentation. Dialectic resembles debate, but the concept excludes subjective elements such as emotional appeal and the modern pejorative sense of rhetoric.[1][2] Dialectic may thus be contrasted with both the eristic, which refers to argument that aims to successfully dispute another's argument (rather than searching for truth), and the didactic method, wherein one side of the conversation teaches the other. Dialectic is alternatively known as minor logic, as opposed to major logic or critique. Within Hegelianism, the word dialectic has the specialised meaning of a contradiction between ideas that serves as the determining factor in their relationship.
Quadrivium Liberal arts of astronomy, arithmetic, music and geometry The quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. These followed the preparatory work of the trivium, consisting of grammar, logic, and rhetoric. Origins[edit] The Pythagoreans considered all mathematical science to be divided into four parts: one half they marked off as concerned with quantity, the other half with magnitude; and each of these they posited as twofold. Medieval usage[edit] Woman teaching geometry. At many medieval universities, this would have been the course leading to the degree of Master of Arts (after the BA). The study was eclectic, approaching the philosophical objectives sought by considering it from each aspect of the quadrivium within the general structure demonstrated by Proclus (AD 412–485), namely arithmetic and music on the one hand[9] and geometry and cosmology on the other.[10] Modern usage[edit] See also[edit] References[edit] ^ Kohler, Kaufmann.
Analogy of the divided line Platonic philosophical analogy In The Republic (509d–510a), Plato describes the divided line to Glaucon this way: Now take a line which has been cut into two unequal parts, and divide each of them again in the same proportion,[1] and suppose the two main divisions to answer, one to the visible and the other to the intelligible, and then compare the subdivisions in respect of their clearness and want of clearness, and you will find that the first section in the sphere of the visible consists of images. And by images I mean, in the first place, shadows, and in the second place, reflections in water and in solid, smooth and polished bodies and the like: Do you understand?Yes, I understand.Imagine, now, the other section, of which this is only the resemblance, to include the animals which we see, and everything that grows or is made.[2] Eikasia has several interpretations. The intelligible world [edit] Tabular summary of the divided line Epistemological meaning
Gyges of Lydia King of Lydia (fl. 7th century BC) Gyges (, ; Lydian: 𐤨𐤰𐤨𐤠𐤮 Kukaś;[1][2]Akkadian: Guggu, Gugu;[3] Ancient Greek: Γύγης, romanized: Gugēs; Latin: Gygēs; reigned c. 680-644 BC[4][5]) was the founder of the Mermnad dynasty of Lydian kings and the first known king of the Lydian kingdom to have attempted to transform it into a powerful empire. Attestations and etymology[edit] The name Gyges is derived from the Ancient Greek form Gugēs (Ancient Greek: Γυγης) recorded by Graeco-Roman authors. Another derivation for Kukaś suggests that it might be a loanword from Carian Quq (𐊨𐊲𐊨), which was represented in Greek as Gugos (Γυγος), and was a cognate of the various Anatolian words for "grandfather": Hittite ḫuḫḫa (𒄷𒄴𒄩), Luwian ḫūḫa- (𒄷𒌋𒄩) and huha- (𔕳𔓷), Milyan xuga- (𐊜𐊒𐊄𐊀), and Lycian xuga- (𐊜𐊒𐊄𐊀).[8] If this etymology is accurate, it correlates with the probability of a Carian origin of the Mermnad dynasty.[9] Life, reign and death[edit] Rise to power[edit] Conquests[edit]
Analogy of the sun Plato's use of such an analogy can be interpreted for many different reasons in philosophy. For example, Plato uses them to illustrate and help illuminate his arguments. In the Analogy of the Sun, Socrates compares the "Good" with the sun. Plato might be using the image of the sun to help bring life to his arguments or to make the argument more clearly understood. Plato makes the claim that "sight and the visible realm are deficient "As goodness stands in the intelligible realm to intelligence and the things we know, so in the visible realm the sun stands to sight and the things we see In other words, Plato is saying that the true nature of reality cannot be comprehended by the ordinary senses. "Well, here's how you can think about the mind as well. Having made these claims, Socrates asks Glaucon, "...which of the gods in heaven can you put down as cause and master of this, whose light makes our sight see so beautifully and the things to be seen?" See also[edit] References[edit]
Impunity Impunity means "exemption from punishment or loss or escape from fines".[1] In the international law of human rights, it refers to the failure to bring perpetrators of human rights violations to justice and, as such, itself constitutes a denial of the victims' right to justice and redress. Impunity is especially common in countries that lack a tradition of the rule of law, suffer from corruption or that have entrenched systems of patronage, or where the judiciary is weak or members of the security forces are protected by special jurisdictions or immunities. The amended Set of Principles for the Protection and Promotion of Human Rights Through Action to Combat Impunity, submitted to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights on 8 February 2005, defines impunity as: The First Principle of that same document states that: See also[edit] References[edit] External links[edit] International Center for Transitional Justice, Criminal Justice page
A History of Western Philosophy A History of Western Philosophy[a] is a 1945 book by the philosopher Bertrand Russell. A survey of Western philosophy from the pre-Socratic philosophers to the early 20th century, it was criticised for Russell's over-generalization and omissions, particularly from the post-Cartesian period, but nevertheless became a popular and commercial success, and has remained in print from its first publication. When Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1950, A History of Western Philosophy was cited as one of the books that won him the award. Background[edit] Summary[edit] The work is divided into three books, each of which is subdivided into chapters; each chapter generally deals with a single philosopher, school of philosophy, or period of time. Ancient Philosophy[edit] Catholic Philosophy[edit] Modern Philosophy[edit] Reception[edit] A History of Western Philosophy received a mixed reception, especially from academic reviewers. See also[edit] Notes[edit] References[edit] Citations
Justice Concept of moral fairness and administration of the law Justice, in its broadest sense, is the concept that individuals are to be treated in a manner that is equitable and fair.[1] A society in which justice has been achieved would be one in which individuals receive what they "deserve". History[edit] A variety of philosophical and moral theories have been advanced to inform understanding of justice. Religious explanations of the justice can be grouped under divine command theory, which holds that justice issues from God.[2] Western thinkers later advanced different theories of where foundations of justice lie. Modern frameworks include concepts such as distributive justice, egalitarianism, retributive justice, and restorative justice. Harmony and the early Greeks[edit] Justice, according to Plato, is about balance and harmony. To illustrate these ideas, Plato describes a person's as having three parts: reason, spirit, and desire. Divine command and Religious Theories of Justice[edit] [edit]