Amanita muscaria Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a mushroom and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a symbiont with pine plantations, and is now a true cosmopolitan species. It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees. Although it is generally considered poisonous, reports of human deaths resulting from eating the mushroom are extremely rare. Taxonomy and naming[edit] The name of the mushroom in many European languages is thought to be derived from its use as an insecticide when sprinkled in milk. Buttons Classification[edit] Amanita muscaria var. formosa sensu Thiers, southern Oregon Coast Amanita muscaria varies considerably in its morphology, and many authorities recognise several subspecies or varieties within the species.
The Basics of Organic Chemistry When you explore biology, you’ll find that many processes are constantly occurring in living organisms. The study of organic chemistry — which focuses on carbon molecules — is central to all living organisms. The ability to convert ingested fuel to usable energy is what differentiates a living organism from a dead one. What is organic chemistry? In organic chemistry, the focus is on the element carbon. One atom of carbon can combine with up to four other atoms. Carbon is key In their outer shells, carbon atoms have four electrons that can bond with other atoms. Long carbon chains = low reactivity Large molecules form when carbon atoms are joined together in a straight line or in rings. One key to knowing that a compound is less reactive is that its melting and boiling points are high. On the other hand, a compound made of an extremely long carbon chain has a boiling point of 174°C (compared to water, which has a boiling point of 100°C). Forming functional groups based on properties anemia
Ergoline Ergoline is a chemical compound whose structural skeleton is contained in a diverse range of alkaloids. Ergoline derivatives are used clinically for the purpose of vasoconstriction (5-HT1 receptor agonists—ergotamine) and in the treatment of migraines (used with caffeine) and Parkinson's disease. Some ergoline alkaloids found in ergot fungi are implicated in the condition ergotism, which causes convulsive and gangrenous symptoms. Others include psychedelic drugs (e.g., LSD and some alkaloids in Ipomoea tricolor and related species[citation needed]). Uses[edit] In addition to the naturally occurring ergonovine (used as an oxytocic) and ergotamine (a vasoconstrictor used to control migraine), synthetic derivatives of importance are the oxytocic methergine, the anti-migraine drugs dihydroergotamine and methysergide, hydergine (a mixture of dihydroergotoxine mesylates, INN: ergoline mesylates), and bromocriptine, used for numerous purposes including treatment of Parkinson's disease.
Fat Examples of edible animal fats are lard, fish oil, butter/ghee and whale blubber. They are obtained from fats in the milk and meat, as well as from under the skin, of an animal. Examples of edible plant fats include peanut, soya bean, sunflower, sesame, coconut and olive oils, and cocoa butter. These examples of fats can be categorized into saturated fats and unsaturated fats. Chemical structure Example of a natural triglyceride with three different fatty acids. There are many different kinds of fats, but each is a variation on the same chemical structure. The properties of any specific fat molecule depend on the particular fatty acids that constitute it. Saturated and unsaturated fats A fat's constituent fatty acids may also differ in the C/H ratio. Saturated and unsaturated fats differ in their energy content and melting point. Trans fats Importance for living organisms Fat also serves as a useful buffer towards a host of diseases. Adipose tissue See also References
Mescaline Mescaline or 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine is a naturally occurring psychedelic alkaloid of the phenethylamine class, known for its hallucinogenic effects similar to those of LSD and psilocybin. It shares strong structural similarities with the catecholamine dopamine. It occurs naturally in the peyote cactus (Lophophora williamsii),[1] the San Pedro cactus[2] (Echinopsis pachanoi) and in the Peruvian torch (Echinopsis peruviana), and as well in a number of other members of the Cactaceae plant family. It is also found in small amounts in certain members of the Fabaceae (bean) family, including Acacia berlandieri.[3] Naturally derived mescaline powder extract. History and usage[edit] Peyote has been used for at least 5700 years by Native Americans in Mexico.[4] Europeans noted use of peyote in Native American religious ceremonies upon early contact, notably by the Huichols in Mexico. Potential medical usage[edit] Notable users[edit] Biosynthesis of mescaline[edit] Synthetic Mescaline[edit]
Hydrogenation of Unsaturated Fats and Trans Fat It has long been recognized that saturated fats tend to increase the blood level of the "bad" LDL cholesterol. Monounsaturated (one double bond) and polyunsaturated fats (two or more double bonds) found primarily in vegetable oils tend to lower "bad" LDL cholesterol. An elevated LDL-C increases the risk of developing coronary heart disease. Introduction Back in the 1950s, it was recognized that vegetable oils could be substituted for animal fats such as in butter, by making a product we know as margarine. But how do you make an oil into a solid? Hydrogenation Reaction Unsaturated fatty acids may be converted to saturated fatty acids by the relatively simple hydrogenation reaction. alkene plus hydrogen yields an alkane Margarine Vegetable oils are commonly referred to as "polyunsaturated". Figure 1: Hydrogenation of a oleic fatty acid Trans Fat Trans fat has both the benefits and drawbacks of a saturated fat. Problems Contributors
Tabernanthe iboga Tabernanthe iboga or simply iboga is a perennial rainforest shrub and psychedelic, native to western Central Africa. Iboga stimulates the central nervous system when taken in small doses and induces visions in larger doses. In parts of Africa where the plant grows the bark of the root is chewed for various pharmacological or ritualistic purposes. Normally growing to a height of 2 m, T. iboga may eventually grow into a small tree up to 10 m tall, given the right conditions. Traditional use[edit] Bark of Tabernanthe iboga. The Iboga tree is the central pillar of the Bwiti spiritual practice in West-Central Africa, mainly Gabon, Cameroon and the Republic of the Congo, which uses the alkaloid-containing roots of the plant in a number of ceremonies. In lower doses Iboga has a stimulant effect and is used to maintain alertness while hunting.[1][2] Addiction treatment[edit] Legal status[edit] Exportation of iboga from Gabon is illegal since the passage of a 1994 cultural protection law.[5]
MARGARINE FROM OIL British Instructional Films presentation. A lorry pulling a tubular tank pulls into a depot. Written on the side of the tank is: "Towers Creameries - Mitcham." Interior of the depot - large metal containers. The oils are weighed. more A lorry pulling a tubular tank pulls into a depot. We see the mixture being stirred. Produced with the Co-operation of the National Committee for Visual Aids in Education. less Dimethyltryptamine History[edit] Another historical milestone is the discovery of DMT in plants frequently used by Amazonian natives as additive to the vine Banisteriopsis caapi to make ayahuasca decoctions. Biosynthesis[edit] Biosynthetic pathway for N,N-dimethyltryptamine This transmethylation mechanism has been repeatedly and consistently proven by radiolabeling of SAM methyl group with carbon-14 (14C-CH3)SAM).[22][20][24][25][26] Evidence in mammals[edit] In 2013, researchers first reported DMT in the pineal gland microdialysate of rodents.[28] A study published in 2014 reported the biosynthesis of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) in the human melanoma cell line SK-Mel-147 including details on its metabolism by peroxidases. [29] In a 2014 paper, a group first demonstrated the immunomodulatory potential of DMT and 5-MeO-DMT through the Sigma-1_receptor of human immune cells. INMT[edit] Endogenous DMT[edit] The first claimed detection of mammalian endogenous DMT was published in June 1965: German researchers F.
Salvia divinorum Salvia divinorum (also known as Diviner's Sage,[2] Ska María Pastora,[3] Seer's Sage,[4] and by its genus name Salvia) is a psychoactive plant which can induce "visions" and other hallucinatory experiences. Its native habitat is in cloud forest in the isolated Sierra Mazateca of Oaxaca, Mexico, where it grows in shady and moist locations.[5][6] The plant grows to over a meter high,[1] has hollow square stems, large leaves, and occasional white flowers with violet calyxes. Botanists have not determined whether Salvia divinorum is a cultigen or a hybrid; native plants reproduce vegetatively, rarely producing viable seed.[7][8] Mazatec shamans have a long and continuous tradition of religious use of Salvia divinorum, using it to facilitate visionary states of consciousness during spiritual healing sessions.[1] Most of the plant's local common names allude to the Mazatec belief that the plant is an incarnation of the Virgin Mary, with its ritual use also invoking that relationship. History
Salvinorin A Salvinorin A is the main active psychotropic molecule in Salvia divinorum, a Mexican plant which has a long history of use as an entheogen by indigenous Mazatec shamans. Salvinorin A is considered a dissociative exhibiting atypically psychedelic effects. Salvinorin A can produce psychoactive experiences in humans with a typical duration of action being several minutes to an hour or so, depending on the method of ingestion.[2] History[edit] Salvinorin A was first described and named in 1982 by Alfredo Ortega and colleagues in Mexico. They used a combination of spectroscopy and x-ray crystallography to determine the chemical structure of the compound, which was shown to have a bicyclic diterpene structure.[3] Around the same time, Leander Julián Valdés III independently isolated the molecule as part of his PhD research, published in 1983.[4] Valdés named the chemical divinorum, and also isolated an analog that he named divinorum B. Pharmacology[edit] Potency and selectivity[edit] Salvinorin A
Ibogaine Ibogaine is a naturally occurring psychoactive substance found in plants in the Apocynaceae family such as Tabernanthe iboga, Voacanga africana and Tabernaemontana undulata. A psychedelic with dissociative properties, the substance is banned in some countries; in other countries it is used by proponents of psychedelic therapy to treat addiction to methadone, heroin, alcohol, cocaine, methamphetamine, anabolic steroids, and other drugs. Ibogaine is also used to treat depression and post traumatic stress disorder. Derivatives of ibogaine that lack the substance's psychedelic properties are under development.[1] Ibogaine-containing preparations are used for medicinal and ritual purposes within African spiritual traditions of the Bwiti, who claim to have learned it from the Pygmy peoples. Ibogaine is an indole alkaloid that is obtained either by extraction from the iboga plant or by semi-synthesis from the precursor compound voacangine,[3][4] another plant alkaloid. History[edit]
Ergotamine Ergotamine is an ergopeptine and part of the ergot family of alkaloids; it is structurally and biochemically closely related to ergoline. It possesses structural similarity to several neurotransmitters, and has biological activity as a vasoconstrictor. It is used medicinally for treatment of acute migraine attacks (sometimes in combination with caffeine). Mechanism of action[edit] Biosynthesis[edit] Ergotamine is a secondary metabolite (natural product) and the principal alkaloid produced by the ergot fungus, Claviceps purpurea, and related fungi in the family Clavicipitaceae.[7] Its biosynthesis in these fungi requires the amino acid L-tryptophan and dimethylallyl diphosphate. Drug uses[edit] Ergotamine produces vasoconstriction peripherally as well as damages the peripheral epithelium. Ergotamine continues to be prescribed for migraines. Availability and dosage[edit] See also[edit] References[edit] ^ Jump up to: a b Sanders, SW; Haering N, Mosberg H, Jaeger H (1986).
Muscimol Muscimol (agarin, pantherine) is the major psychoactive alkaloid present in many mushrooms of the Amanita genus. Muscimol is a potent, selective agonist for the GABAA receptors and displays sedative-hypnotic effects. Chemistry[edit] Muscimol is the psychoactive compound responsible for the effects of Amanita muscaria intoxication. Biology[edit] Muscimol is produced naturally in the mushrooms Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina, along with muscarine, muscazone, and ibotenic acid.[2][3] A. muscaria and A. pantherina should be eaten with caution and prepared properly to lessen effects of nausea; no official deaths from poisoning have been recorded from A. muscaria and A. pantherina.[4] In A. muscaria, the layer just below the skin of the cap contains the highest amount of muscimol, and is therefore the most psychoactive portion.[5] Pharmacology[edit] During a test involving rabbits connected to an EEG, muscimol showed a distinctly synchronized EEG tracing. Toxicity[edit] Effects[edit]