Edmund Burke

Montesquieu French judge, man of letters, historian, and political philosopher (1689–1755) Charles Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu[a] (18 January 1689 – 10 February 1755), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French judge, man of letters, historian, and political philosopher. He is the principal source of the theory of separation of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions throughout the world. He is also known for doing more than any other author to secure the place of the word despotism in the political lexicon.[3] His anonymously published The Spirit of Law (1748), which was received well in both Great Britain and the American colonies, influenced the Founding Fathers of the United States in drafting the U.S. Constitution. Biography Montesquieu's early life was a time of significant governmental change. Montesquieu eventually withdrew from the practice of law to devote himself to study and writing. Philosophy of history Political views Philip M. See also

Étienne Mantoux Étienne Mantoux (5 February 1913 – 29 April 1945) was a French economist, born in Paris. He was the son of Paul Mantoux. He is probably best known for his book The Carthaginian Peace, or the Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes published two years after it was completed and one year after his death. In it, he sought to demonstrate that much of John Maynard Keynes' beliefs about the consequences of the Treaty of Versailles for Germany as expressed in The Economic Consequences of the Peace were wrong. In opposition to Keynes he held that justice demanded that Germany should have paid for the whole damage caused by World War I, and he set out to prove that many of Keynes' forecasts were not verified by subsequent events. A. Mantoux was killed in action eight days before Germany unconditionally surrendered on 7 May 1945 whilst fighting with the Free French Forces in Bavaria. Works[edit] "La Théorie générale de M. Notes[edit] References[edit]

Richard Price British philosopher, preacher and mathematician (1723–1791) Born in Llangeinor, near Bridgend, Wales, Price spent most of his adult life as minister of Newington Green Unitarian Church, on the then outskirts of London, England. He edited, published and developed the Bayes–Price theorem and the field of actuarial science. He also wrote on issues of demography and finance, and was a Fellow of the Royal Society. Early life[edit] Born on 23 February 1723,[2] Richard Price was the son of Rhys Price, a dissenting minister. He then moved to London, where he spent the rest of his life. Newington Green congregation[edit] Friends and associates[edit] Newington Green neighbours[edit] Bowood circle[edit] The "Bowood circle" was a group of liberal intellectuals around Lord Shelburne, and named after Bowood House, his seat in Wiltshire. "Club of Honest Whigs"[edit] Visitors[edit] Theologians[edit] Price and Priestley took diverging views on morals and metaphysics. Mary Wollstonecraft[edit] Later life[edit]

Bastille Former Parisian fortress The Bastille (, French: [bastij] ( listen)) was a fortress in Paris, known formally as the Bastille Saint-Antoine. It played an important role in the internal conflicts of France and for most of its history was used as a state prison by the kings of France. Almost nothing is left of the Bastille, except some remains of its stone foundation that were relocated to the side of Boulevard Henri IV. History[edit] 14th century[edit] Historical reconstruction showing the moat below the walls of Paris (left), the Bastille and the Porte Saint-Antoine (right) in 1420 A 1750 plan of the Bastille's eight medieval towers showing the calottes in the roofs and the infamous cachots within the foundations. 15th century[edit] Parisian defences in 14th century: A – Louvre; B – Palais de Roi; C – Hôtel des Tournelles; D – Porte Saint-Antoine; E – Hôtel St Paul; F – the Bastille Paris was finally recaptured by Charles VII of France in 1436. 16th century[edit] Early 17th century[edit] [edit]

Roman Republic Period of ancient Roman civilization (509–27 BC) The Roman Republic (Latin: Rēs pūblica Rōmāna [ˈreːs ˈpuːblɪka roːˈmaːna]) was the era of classical Roman civilization, led by the Roman people, beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom, traditionally dated to 509 BC, and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire. During this period, Rome's control expanded from the city's immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world. Roman society under the Republic was primarily a cultural mix of Latin and Etruscan societies, as well as of Sabine, Oscan, and Greek cultural elements, which is especially visible in the Roman Pantheon. History[edit] Foundation (509 BC)[edit] The Senate agreed to abolish kingship. Most modern scholarship describes these events as the quasi-mythological detailing of an aristocratic coup within Tarquin's own family, not a popular revolution. Rome in Latium (509–387 BC)[edit] Early campaigns[edit] Plebeians and patricians[edit]

Reflections on the Revolution in France Reflections on the Revolution in France[1] is a political pamphlet written by the Irish statesman Edmund Burke and published in November 1790. One of the best-known intellectual attacks against the French Revolution,[2] Reflections is a defining tract of modern conservatism as well as an important contribution to international theory. Above all else, it has been one of the defining efforts of Edmund Burke's transformation of "traditionalism into a self-conscious and fully conceived political philosophy of conservatism".[3] The pamphlet has not been easy to classify. Background[edit] Soon after the fall of the Bastille in 1789, the French aristocrat Charles-Jean-François Depont asked his impressions of the Revolution and Burke replied with two letters. With his view of what he believed would happen to the revolutionaries, one can see why Burke did not like change. Arguments[edit] Most of the House of Commons disagreed with Burke and his popularity declined. Intellectual influence[edit]

English Dissenters A Catalogue of the Severall Sects and Opinions in England and other Nations: With a briefe Rehearsall of their false and dangerous Tenents, a propaganda broadsheet denouncing English dissenters from 1647. English Dissenters or English Separatists were Protestant Christians who separated from the Church of England in the 17th and 18th centuries.[1] A dissenter (from the Latin dissentire, "to disagree") is one who disagrees in opinion, belief and other matters. King James VI of Scotland, I of England and Ireland, had said "no bishop, no king", emphasising the role of the clergy in justifying royal legitimacy.[3] Cromwell capitalised on that phrase, abolishing both upon founding the Commonwealth of England. Organised dissenting groups (17th century)[edit] In existence during the English Interregnum (1649–1660): Anabaptists[edit] Anabaptist (literally, "baptised again") was a term given to those Reformation Christians who rejected the notion of infant baptism in favour of believer's baptism.[4]

William the Conqueror King of England, Duke of Normandy (c. 1028 – 1087) William I[a] (c. 1028[1] – 9 September 1087), usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard,[2][b] was the first Norman king of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. A descendant of Rollo, he was Duke of Normandy from 1035 onward. In the 1050s and early 1060s, William became a contender for the throne of England held by the childless Edward the Confessor, his first cousin once removed. William's final years were marked by difficulties in his continental domains, troubles with his son, Robert, and threatened invasions of England by the Danes. Background Norsemen first began raiding in what became Normandy in the late 8th century. Danish raids on England continued, and Æthelred sought help from Richard, taking refuge in Normandy in 1013 when King Swein I of Denmark drove Æthelred and his family from England. Early life Duke of Normandy Challenges Diagram showing William's family relationships. Legacy

Arpino Comune in Lazio, Italy Arpino (Campanian: Arpinë) is a comune (municipality) in the province of Frosinone, in the Latin Valley, region of Lazio in central Italy, about 100 km SE of Rome. Its Roman name was Arpinum.[3] In Roman times, the town produced two consuls of the Roman Republic: Gaius Marius and Marcus Tullius Cicero.[4] History[edit] Pointed arch in the walls. The ancient city of Arpinum dates back to at least the 7th century BC. The town produced both Gaius Marius and Marcus Tullius Cicero, who were novus homo (people from new families which were elected one of the consuls of the Roman Republic). Ancient Roman basalt pavement in Arpino In the early Middle Ages, the Roman duchy and the Duchy of Benevento contended for its strategic position. The castrato sopranist Gioacchino Conti, known as Il Gizziello or heb ceilliau, was born in Arpino in 1714. Main sights[edit] Attractions include the circuit walls in polygonal masonry.[5] These walls include an example of an ogive arch.[6]

Germany Country in Central Europe Germany,[e] officially the Federal Republic of Germany,[f] is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Settlement in the territory of modern Germany began in the Lower Paleolithic, with various tribes inhabiting it from the Neolithic onward, chiefly the Celts. Formal unification of Germany into the modern nation-state commenced on 18 August 1866 with the North German Confederation Treaty establishing the Prussia-led North German Confederation, which became the German Empire in 1871. Etymology The English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine.[13] The German term Deutschland, originally diutisciu land ('the German lands'), is derived from deutsch (cf. History Prehistory Germanic tribes, Roman frontier and the Frankish Empire East Francia and the Holy Roman Empire German Confederation and Empire Law

Enquiry Concerning Political Justice Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Morals and Happiness is a 1793 book by the philosopher William Godwin, in which the author outlines his political philosophy. It is the first modern work to expound anarchism. Background and publication[edit] Content[edit] Despite being published during the French Revolution, the French Revolutionary Wars, and the lead up to the 1794 Treason Trials in Britain, Political Justice argues that humanity will inevitably progress: it argues for human perfectibility and enlightenment.[1] McCann explains that "Political Justice is ... first and foremost a critique of political institutions. Godwin argued that the link between politics and morality had been severed and he wanted to restore it. Godwin was not a revolutionary in the vein of John Thelwall and the London Corresponding Society. However, paradoxes and contradictions surface throughout Political Justice. Variants[edit] Impact[edit] See also[edit] List of books about anarchism

10 surprising facts about William the Conqueror and the Norman conquest No one at the time called William ‘the Conqueror’ The earliest recorded use of that nickname occurs in the 1120s, and it didn’t really take off until the 13th century. At the time of his death in 1087, William was called ‘the Great’ by his admirers, and ‘the Bastard’ by his detractors; the latter a mocking reference to his illegitimate birth (he was the son of Robert I, Duke of Normandy, and his mistress Herleva). Every major church in England was rebuilt as a result of the Norman conquest The Anglo-Saxons were not famed for building in stone, and during the first half of the 11th century had not embraced the new architectural style, now known as ‘Romanesque’, that had become fashionable on the continent. Normandy, by contrast, had experienced a church-building boom during the rule of William the Conqueror, with dozens of new abbeys founded and ancient cathedrals rebuilt. The Norman conquest introduced castles to Britain The battle of Hastings was fought at Battle, near Hastings

Personal life of Cicero The personal life of Marcus Tullius Cicero provided the underpinnings of one of the most significant politicians of the Roman Republic. Cicero, a Roman statesman, lawyer, political theorist, philosopher, and Roman constitutionalist, played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. A contemporary of Julius Caesar, Cicero is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.[1][2] Cicero is generally perceived to be one of the most versatile minds of ancient Rome. He introduced the Romans to the chief schools of Greek philosophy and created a Latin philosophical vocabulary, distinguishing himself as a linguist, translator, and philosopher. An impressive orator and successful lawyer, Cicero probably thought his political career his most important achievement. Childhood and family[edit] Cicero was born January 3, 106 BC,[6] in Arpinum (modern-day Arpino), a hill town 100 kilometres (62 mi) south of Rome. Studies[edit] Marriages[edit]

René Albrecht-Carrié René Albrecht-Carrié (20 January 1904 – August 1978) was a diplomatic historian. Born in Smyrna, Albrecht-Carrié was educated at Columbia University, where he gained an AB in 1923 and a PhD in 1938.[1] He spent his academic career as Professor of History at Barnard College (1945–1969) and at Columbia's School of International Affairs (1953–1969).[1] His book Italy at the Paris Peace Conference won the George Louis Beer Prize in 1938 and his The Meaning of the First World War won the Mid Atlantic States Association's Medal.[1] Works[edit] Notes[edit]