Authenticity Authenticity or authentic may refer to: Authentication, the act of confirming the truth of an attribute Arts and entertainment[edit] Authenticity in art, ways in which a work of art or an artistic performance may be considered authentic Music[edit] Authentic performance, an approach to the performance of classical musicAuthentic Records, a record labelAuthentic mode, a set of pitch organizations used in Gregorian chant Albums[edit] Other uses[edit] See also[edit]
Meaning of life Questions Questions about the meaning of life have been expressed in a broad variety of ways, including the following: What is the meaning of life? Philosopher in Meditation (detail) by RembrandtWhy are we here? These questions have resulted in a wide range of competing answers and arguments, from scientific theories, to philosophical, theological, and spiritual explanations. Scientific inquiry and perspectives Many members of the scientific community and philosophy of science communities think that science can provide the relevant context, and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life. Psychological significance and value in life Neuroscience describes reward, pleasure, and motivation in terms of neurotransmitter activity, especially in the limbic system and the ventral tegmental area in particular. Experimental philosophy and neuroethics research collects data about human ethical decisions in controlled scenarios such as trolley problems. Platonism
Existentialism Existentialism is a term applied to the work of certain late 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences,[1][2][3] shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual.[4] In existentialism, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential attitude", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world.[5] Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.[6][7] Definitional issues and background[edit] There has never been general agreement on the definition of existentialism. Concepts[edit] Existence precedes essence[edit] "The subjective thinker’s form, the form of his communication, is his style. The Absurd[edit] Facticity[edit] Angst[edit]
Late Middle Ages Period of European history between 1250 and 1500 CE From the Apocalypse in a Biblia Pauperum illuminated at Erfurt around the time of the Great Famine. Death sits astride a lion whose long tail ends in a ball of flame (Hell). Famine points to her hungry mouth. The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history lasting from 1250 to 1500 AD. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period (and in much of Europe, the Renaissance).[1] Around 1300, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. Despite the crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress in the arts and sciences. Combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing, which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. Historiography and periodization[edit] Modern historiography on the period has reached a consensus between the two extremes of innovation and crisis. Music[edit]
Individual That which exists as a distinct figure or entity An individual is that which exists as a distinct entity. Individuality (or self-hood) is the state or quality of living as an individual; particularly (in the case of humans) of as a person unique from other people and possessing one's own needs or goals, rights and responsibilities. The concept of an individual features in diverse fields, including biology, law, and philosophy. Etymology[edit] From the 15th century and earlier (and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics) individual meant "indivisible", typically describing any numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning "a person". Biology[edit] Law[edit] Philosophy[edit] Buddhism[edit] Empiricism[edit] Empiricists such as Ibn Tufail[4] in early 12th century Islamic Spain and John Locke in late 17th century England viewed the individual as a tabula rasa ("blank slate"), shaped from birth by experience and education. Hegel[edit] Existentialism[edit] Objectivism[edit]
Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud (/frɔɪd/;[2] German pronunciation: [ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏ̯t]; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist, now known as the father of psychoanalysis. Freud qualified as a doctor of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1881,[3] and then carried out research into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy at the Vienna General Hospital.[4] Upon completing his habilitation in 1895, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology in the same year and became an affiliated professor (professor extraordinarius) in 1902.[5][6] Psychoanalysis remains influential within psychotherapy, within some areas of psychiatry, and across the humanities. Biography[edit] Early life and education[edit] Freud's birthplace, a rented room in a locksmith's house, Příbor, Czech Republic Freud (aged 16) and his beloved[12] mother, Amalia, in 1872 In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg. Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17. Early followers[edit]
Propositional attitude Concept in epistemology A propositional attitude is a mental state held by an agent or organism toward a proposition. In philosophy, propositional attitudes can be considered to be neurally-realized causally efficacious content-bearing internal states (personal principles/values).[1] Linguistically, propositional attitudes are denoted by a verb (e.g. believed) governing an embedded "that" clause, for example, 'Sally believed that she had won'. Propositional attitudes are often assumed to be the fundamental units of thought and their contents, being propositions, are true or false from the perspective of the person. Propositional attitudes have directions of fit: some are meant to reflect the world, others to influence it. One topic of central concern is the relation between the modalities of assertion and belief, perhaps with intention thrown in for good measure. Indiscernibility of identicals [edit] What sort of name shall we give to verbs like 'believe' and 'wish' and so forth?
Id, ego and super-ego The three parts are the theoretical constructs in terms of whose activity and interaction our mental life is described. According to this Freudian model of the psyche, the id is the set of uncoordinated instinctual trends; the super-ego plays the critical and moralizing role; and the ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego.[1] As Freud explained: The functional importance of the ego is manifested in the fact that normally control over the approaches to motility devolves upon it. Although the model is structural and makes reference to an apparatus, the id, ego and super-ego are purely psychological concepts and do not correspond to (somatic) structures of the brain such as the kind dealt with by neuroscience. Freud (1933) hypothesizes different levels of ego ideal or superego development with increasingly greater ideals: The earlier in development, the greater the estimate of parental power. Id[edit] In the id: Ego[edit] People
Proposition Bearer of truth or falsity if given the actual world as input, but would return if given some alternate world where the sky is green. However, a number of alternative formalizations have been proposed, notably the structured propositions view. Relation to the mind [edit] In relation to the mind, propositions are discussed primarily as they fit into propositional attitudes. Explaining the relation of propositions to the mind is especially difficult for non-mentalist views of propositions, such as those of the logical positivists and Russell described above, and Gottlob Frege's view that propositions are Platonist entities, that is, existing in an abstract, non-physical realm.[1] So some recent views of propositions have taken them to be mental. Philosophical debates surrounding propositions as they relate to propositional attitudes have also recently centered on whether they are internal or external to the agent, or whether they are mind-dependent or mind-independent entities. such that and
Carl Jung Carl Gustav Jung (/jʊŋ/; German: [ˈkarl ˈɡʊstaf jʊŋ]; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961), often referred to as C. G. Jung, was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist who founded analytical psychology.[2] Jung proposed and developed the concepts of the collective unconscious, archetypes, and extraversion and introversion. The central concept of analytical psychology is individuation—the psychological process of integrating the opposites, including the conscious with the unconscious, while still maintaining their relative autonomy.[3] Jung considered individuation to be the central process of human development.[4] Jung saw the human psyche as "by nature religious"[5] and made this religiousness the focus of his explorations.[6] Jung is one of the best known contemporary contributors to dream analysis and symbolization. Early years[edit] Childhood family[edit] Jung's mother left Laufen for several months of hospitalization near Basel for an unknown physical ailment. Childhood memories[edit]
Individualism Individualism makes the individual its focus[1] and so starts "with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation."[4] Liberalism, existentialism and anarchism are examples of movements that take the human individual as a central unit of analysis.[4] Individualism thus involves "the right of the individual to freedom and self-realization".[5] It has also been used as a term denoting "The quality of being an individual; individuality"[3] related to possessing "An individual characteristic; a quirk."[3] Individualism is thus also associated with artistic and bohemian interests and lifestyles where there is a tendency towards self-creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors[3][6] as so also with humanist philosophical positions and ethics.[7][8] Etymology[edit] The individual[edit] An individual is a person or any specific object in a collection. Individualism and society[edit]