Philosophy of religion Branch of philosophy examining the concepts of religion The philosophy of religion differs from religious philosophy in that it seeks to discuss questions regarding the nature of religion as a whole, rather than examining the problems brought forth by a particular belief-system. It can be carried out dispassionately by those who identify as believers or non-believers.[3] Overview[edit] Philosopher William L. The term philosophy of religion did not come into general use in the West until the nineteenth century,[6] and most pre-modern and early modern philosophical works included a mixture of religious themes and non-religious philosophical questions. The philosophy of religion has been distinguished from theology by pointing out that, for theology, "its critical reflections are based on religious convictions".[8] Also, "theology is responsible to an authority that initiates its thinking, speaking, and witnessing ... Basic themes and problems[edit] Ultimate reality[edit] Monotheism[edit]
Automated reasoning Automated reasoning is an area of computer science and mathematical logic dedicated to understanding different aspects of reasoning. The study of automated reasoning helps produce computer programs that allows computers to reason completely, or nearly completely, automatically. Although automated reasoning is considered a sub-field of artificial intelligence, it also has connections with theoretical computer science, and even philosophy. The most developed subareas of automated reasoning are automated theorem proving (and the less automated but more pragmatic subfield of interactive theorem proving) and automated proof checking (viewed as guaranteed correct reasoning under fixed assumptions). Extensive work has also been done in reasoning by analogy induction and abduction. Other important topics include reasoning under uncertainty and non-monotonic reasoning. Early years[edit] Significant contributions[edit] "There are now in the world machines that think, that learn and that create.
Philosophy of mind Branch of philosophy The philosophy of mind is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of the mind and its relation to the body and the external world. The mind–body problem is a paradigmatic issue in philosophy of mind, although a number of other issues are addressed, such as the hard problem of consciousness and the nature of particular mental states.[1][2][3] Aspects of the mind that are studied include mental events, mental functions, mental properties, consciousness and its neural correlates, the ontology of the mind, the nature of cognition and of thought, and the relationship of the mind to the body. The problems of physicalist theories of the mind have led some contemporary philosophers to assert that the traditional view of substance dualism should be defended. A related problem is how someone's propositional attitudes (e.g. beliefs and desires) cause that individual's neurons to fire and muscles to contract. Dualist solutions to the mind–body problem [edit]
Mathematical logic Subfield of mathematics Mathematical logic is the study of formal logic within mathematics. Major subareas include model theory, proof theory, set theory, and recursion theory (also known as computability theory). Since its inception, mathematical logic has both contributed to and been motivated by the study of foundations of mathematics. Subfields and scope[edit] The Handbook of Mathematical Logic in 1977 makes a rough division of contemporary mathematical logic into four areas: The mathematical field of category theory uses many formal axiomatic methods, and includes the study of categorical logic, but category theory is not ordinarily considered a subfield of mathematical logic. History[edit] Mathematical logic emerged in the mid-19th century as a subfield of mathematics, reflecting the confluence of two traditions: formal philosophical logic and mathematics. Early history[edit] 19th century[edit] Foundational theories[edit] 20th century[edit] Set theory and paradoxes[edit] . such as
Philosophy of mathematics The terms philosophy of mathematics and mathematical philosophy are frequently used interchangeably.[1] The latter, however, may be used to refer to several other areas of study. One refers to a project of formalizing a philosophical subject matter, say, aesthetics, ethics, logic, metaphysics, or theology, in a purportedly more exact and rigorous form, as for example the labors of scholastic theologians, or the systematic aims of Leibniz and Spinoza. Another refers to the working philosophy of an individual practitioner or a like-minded community of practicing mathematicians. Recurrent themes[edit] Recurrent themes include: What is the role of Mankind in developing mathematics? History[edit] The origin of mathematics is subject to argument. Many thinkers have contributed their ideas concerning the nature of mathematics. Greek philosophy on mathematics was strongly influenced by their study of geometry. 20th century[edit] Major themes[edit] Mathematical realism[edit] Platonism[edit] Some[who?]
Reason Capacity for consciously making sense of things Reason is the capacity of applying logic consciously by drawing conclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking the truth.[1] It is associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, religion, science, language, mathematics, and art, and is normally considered to be a distinguishing ability possessed by humans.[2][3] Reason is sometimes referred to as rationality.[4] The words are connected in this way: Using reason, or reasoning, means providing good reasons. Psychologists and cognitive scientists have attempted to study and explain how people reason, e.g. which cognitive and neural processes are engaged, and how cultural factors affect the inferences that people draw. In the English language and other modern European languages, "reason", and related words, represent words which have always been used to translate Latin and classical Greek terms in their philosophical sense. Philosophical history
Philosophy of logic Study of the scope and nature of logic Different types of logic are often distinguished. Logic is usually understood as formal logic and is treated as such for most of this article. Formal logic is only interested in the form of arguments, expressed in a formal language, and focuses on deductive inferences. Informal logic, on the other hand, addresses a much wider range of arguments found also in natural language, which include non-deductive arguments. The philosophy of logic also investigates the nature and philosophical implications of the fundamental concepts of logic. The metaphysics of logic is concerned with the metaphysical status of the laws and objects of logic. Definition and related disciplines[edit] Nature of logic[edit] The term "logic" is based on the Greek word "logos", which is associated with various different senses, such as reason, discourse, or language. General characteristics[edit] There is wide agreement that logic is a normative discipline. Types of logics[edit]
Computer program Instructions to be executed by a computer Example computer program[edit] 10 INPUT "How many numbers to average?", A20 FOR I = 1 TO A30 INPUT "Enter number:", B40 LET C = C + B50 NEXT I60 LET D = C/A70 PRINT "The average is", D80 END Once the mechanics of basic computer programming are learned, more sophisticated and powerful languages are available to build large computer systems.[8] History[edit] Improvements in software development are the result of improvements in computer hardware. Analytical Engine[edit] In 1837, Charles Babbage was inspired by Jacquard's loom to attempt to build the Analytical Engine.[9] The names of the components of the calculating device were borrowed from the textile industry. Ada Lovelace worked for Charles Babbage to create a description of the Analytical Engine (1843).[13] The description contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine. Universal Turing machine[edit] ENIAC[edit] Sac State 8008[edit]
Artificial intelligence Intelligence of machines Artificial intelligence (AI), in its broadest sense, is intelligence exhibited by machines, particularly computer systems. It is a field of research in computer science that develops and studies methods and software that enable machines to perceive their environment and use learning and intelligence to take actions that maximize their chances of achieving defined goals. The growing use of artificial intelligence in the 21st century is influencing a societal and economic shift towards increased automation, data-driven decision-making, and the integration of AI systems into various economic sectors and areas of life, impacting job markets, healthcare, government, industry, education, propaganda, and disinformation. The various subfields of AI research are centered around particular goals and the use of particular tools. Goals The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken into subproblems. Reasoning and problem-solving Learning Logic