# Euler's formula

This article is about Euler's formula in complex analysis. For Euler's formula in algebraic topology and polyhedral combinatorics see Euler characteristic. Euler's formula, named after Leonhard Euler, is a mathematical formula in complex analysis that establishes the fundamental relationship between the trigonometric functions and the complex exponential function. Euler's formula is ubiquitous in mathematics, physics, and engineering. History It was Johann Bernoulli who noted that[3] And since the above equation tells us something about complex logarithms. Bernoulli's correspondence with Euler (who also knew the above equation) shows that Bernoulli did not fully understand complex logarithms. Meanwhile, Roger Cotes, in 1714, discovered that ("ln" is the natural logarithm with base e).[4] Cotes missed the fact that a complex logarithm can have infinitely many values, differing by multiples of 2π, due to the periodicity of the trigonometric functions. where the real part the imaginary part Related:  Mathematics

Gauss–Seidel method In numerical linear algebra, the Gauss–Seidel method, also known as the Liebmann method or the method of successive displacement, is an iterative method used to solve a linear system of equations. It is named after the German mathematicians Carl Friedrich Gauss and Philipp Ludwig von Seidel, and is similar to the Jacobi method. Though it can be applied to any matrix with non-zero elements on the diagonals, convergence is only guaranteed if the matrix is either diagonally dominant, or symmetric and positive definite. It was only mentioned in a private letter from Gauss to his student Gerling in 1823.[1] A publication was not delivered before 1874 by Seidel. Description The Gauss–Seidel method is an iterative technique for solving a square system of n linear equations with unknown x: It is defined by the iteration where the matrix A is decomposed into a lower triangular component , and a strictly upper triangular component U: In more detail, write out A, x and b in their components: and

Stereographic projection 3D illustration of a stereographic projection from the north pole onto a plane below the sphere Intuitively, then, the stereographic projection is a way of picturing the sphere as the plane, with some inevitable compromises. Because the sphere and the plane appear in many areas of mathematics and its applications, so does the stereographic projection; it finds use in diverse fields including complex analysis, cartography, geology, and photography. In practice, the projection is carried out by computer or by hand using a special kind of graph paper called a stereographic net, shortened to stereonet or Wulff net. History Illustration by Rubens for "Opticorum libri sex philosophis juxta ac mathematicis utiles", by François d'Aiguillon. The stereographic projection was known to Hipparchus, Ptolemy and probably earlier to the Egyptians. Definition This section focuses on the projection of the unit sphere from the north pole onto the plane through the equator. Properties with E.

Complex plane Geometric representation of z and its conjugate z̅ in the complex plane. The distance along the light blue line from the origin to the point z is the modulus or absolute value of z. The angle φ is the argument of z. In mathematics, the complex plane or z-plane is a geometric representation of the complex numbers established by the real axis and the orthogonal imaginary axis. Notational conventions In complex analysis the complex numbers are customarily represented by the symbol z, which can be separated into its real (x) and imaginary (y) parts, like this: for example: z = 4 + 5i, where x and y are real numbers, and i is the imaginary unit. In the Cartesian plane the point (x, y) can also be represented in polar coordinates as where Here |z| is the absolute value or modulus of the complex number z; θ, the argument of z, is usually taken on the interval 0 ≤ θ < 2π; and the last equality (to |z|eiθ) is taken from Euler's formula. Stereographic projections Cutting the plane

Avogadro constant Previous definitions of chemical quantity involved Avogadro's number, a historical term closely related to the Avogadro constant but defined differently: Avogadro's number was initially defined by Jean Baptiste Perrin as the number of atoms in one gram-molecule of hydrogen. It was later redefined as the number of atoms in 12 grams of the isotope carbon-12 and still later generalized to relate amounts of a substance to their molecular weight.[4] For instance, to a first approximation, 1 gram of hydrogen, which has a mass number of 1 (atomic number 1), has 6.022×1023 hydrogen atoms. Similarly, 12 grams of carbon 12, with the mass number of 12 (atomic number 6), has the same number of carbon atoms, 6.022×1023. Avogadro's number is a dimensionless quantity and has the numerical value of the Avogadro constant given in base units. The Avogadro constant is fundamental to understanding both the makeup of molecules and their interactions and combinations. History [dubious ] Measurement

'Periodic table of shapes' to give a new dimension to math Mathematicians are creating their own version of the periodic table that will provide a vast directory of all the possible shapes in the universe across three, four and five dimensions, linking shapes together in the same way as the periodic table links groups of chemical elements. The three-year project should provide a resource that mathematicians, physicists and other scientists can use for calculations and research in a range of areas, including computer vision, number theory, and theoretical physics. The researchers, from Imperial College London and institutions in Australia, Japan and Russia, are aiming to identify all the shapes across three, four and five dimensions that cannot be divided into other shapes. As these building block shapes are revealed, the mathematicians will work out the equations that describe each shape and through this, they expect to develop a better understanding of the shapes' geometric properties and how different shapes are related to one another.

Complex number A complex number can be visually represented as a pair of numbers (a, b) forming a vector on a diagram called an Argand diagram, representing the complex plane. "Re" is the real axis, "Im" is the imaginary axis, and i is the imaginary unit which satisfies i2 = −1. A complex number is a number that can be expressed in the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers and i is the imaginary unit, that satisfies the equation x2 = −1, that is, i2 = −1.[1] In this expression, a is the real part and b is the imaginary part of the complex number. Complex numbers extend the concept of the one-dimensional number line to the two-dimensional complex plane (also called Argand plane) by using the horizontal axis for the real part and the vertical axis for the imaginary part. As well as their use within mathematics, complex numbers have practical applications in many fields, including physics, chemistry, biology, economics, electrical engineering, and statistics. Overview Definition . or or z*.

arXiv.org e-Print archive Warning! High Dimensions Ahead ← Inductio Ex Machina Machine learning is often framed as finding surfaces (usually planes) that separate or fit points in some high dimensional space. Two and three dimensional diagrams are often used as an aid to intuition when thinking about these higher dimensional spaces. The following result (related to me by Marcus Hutter) shows that our low dimensional intuition can easily lead us astray. Consider the diagram in Figure 1. The larger grey spheres have radius 1 and are each touching exactly two other grey spheres. Pythagoras tells us that and so . Figure 1: The blue circle in the middle touches each of the four identical grey circles. We can move to three dimensions and set up an analogue of the two dimensional situation by arranging eight spheres of radius 1 so they are touching exactly three other grey spheres. As in the case with circles, we can place a blue sphere inside the eight grey spheres so that it touches all of them. Figure 2: The blue sphere touches each of the eight identical grey spheres.

Imaginary unit i in the complex or cartesian plane. Real numbers lie on the horizontal axis, and imaginary numbers lie on the vertical axis There are in fact two complex square roots of −1, namely i and −i, just as there are two complex square roots of every other real number, except zero, which has one double square root. In contexts where i is ambiguous or problematic, j or the Greek ι (see alternative notations) is sometimes used. In the disciplines of electrical engineering and control systems engineering, the imaginary unit is often denoted by j instead of i, because i is commonly used to denote electric current in these disciplines. For the history of the imaginary unit, see Complex number: History. Definition With i defined this way, it follows directly from algebra that i and −i are both square roots of −1. Similarly, as with any non-zero real number: i and −i and are solutions to the matrix equation Proper use (incorrect). (ambiguous). Similarly: The calculation rules Properties

Fundamental theorem of algebra The fundamental theorem of algebra states that every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one complex root. This includes polynomials with real coefficients, since every real number is a complex number with zero imaginary part. History Peter Rothe, in his book Arithmetica Philosophica (published in 1608), wrote that a polynomial equation of degree n (with real coefficients) may have n solutions. Albert Girard, in his book L'invention nouvelle en l'Algèbre (published in 1629), asserted that a polynomial equation of degree n has n solutions, but he did not state that they had to be real numbers. Furthermore, he added that his assertion holds “unless the equation is incomplete”, by which he meant that no coefficient is equal to 0. where α is the square root of 4 + 2√7. A first attempt at proving the theorem was made by d'Alembert in 1746, but his proof was incomplete. Proofs when |z| > R. Complex-analytic proofs and let

Dave's short course in trigonometry Table of Contents Who should take this course? Trigonometry for you Your background How to learn trigonometry Applications of trigonometry Astronomy and geography Engineering and physics Mathematics and its applications What is trigonometry? Trigonometry as computational geometry Angle measurement and tables Background on geometry The Pythagorean theorem An explanation of the Pythagorean theorem Similar triangles Angle measurement The concept of angle Radians and arc length Exercises, hints, and answers About digits of accuracy Chords What is a chord? Ptolemy’s sum and difference formulas Ptolemy’s theorem The sum formula for sines The other sum and difference formulas Summary of trigonometric formulas Formulas for arcs and sectors of circles Formulas for right triangles Formulas for oblique triangles Formulas for areas of triangles Summary of trigonometric identities More important identities Less important identities Truly obscure identities About the Java applet.

Related: