Fascism Fascism (/ˈfæʃɪzəm/) is a form of radical authoritarian ultranationalism,[1][2] characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition and strong regimentation of society and of the economy,[3] which came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe.[4] The first fascist movements emerged in Italy during World War I before it spread to other European countries.[4] Opposed to liberalism, Marxism and anarchism, fascism is usually placed on the far-right within the traditional left–right spectrum.[5][6][7][4][8][9] Fascists saw World War I as a revolution that brought massive changes to the nature of war, society, the state and technology. The advent of total war and the total mass mobilization of society had broken down the distinction between civilians and combatants. Etymology Definitions John Lukacs, Hungarian-American historian and Holocaust survivor, argues that there is no such thing as generic fascism. Position in the political spectrum "Fascist" as a pejorative History
Anarchist communism Some forms of anarchist communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are strongly influenced by egoism and radical individualism, believing anarcho-communism is the best social system for the realization of individual freedom.[13][14][15][16] Some anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.[17][18][19][20][21] Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French Revolution[22][23] but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International.[24] The theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections.[25] History[edit] Early developments[edit] Anarchist communist currents appeared during the English Civil War and the French Revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries, respectively. Joseph Déjacque and the Revolutions of 1848[edit] Peter Kropotkin[edit]
Sozialismus Der Sozialismus (von lateinisch socialis ‚kameradschaftlich‘) ist eine der im 19. Jahrhundert entstandenen drei großen politischen Ideologien neben dem Liberalismus und Konservatismus. Es gibt keine eindeutige Definition des Begriffs. Historisch bestehen und bestanden in vielen Staaten Systeme, die – teils als Eigenbezeichnung – mit Realsozialismus, aber auch als Staatssozialismus bezeichnet werden und sich grundsätzlich als autoritäre oder totalitäre Systeme einordnen lassen; zu nennen sind u. a. die Sowjetunion, China, Nordkorea, die DDR oder Kuba. Begriff[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Begriffsgeschichte[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Als socialistae (lateinisch) oder socialisti (italienisch) wurden im 18. Erstmals findet sich das Wort Sozialismus 1803 in der italienischen Form socialismo. Das Adjektiv sozialistisch dagegen wird von Anfang an politisch verstanden. Definitionsproblematik[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten] Historischer Überblick[Bearbeiten | Quelltext bearbeiten]
Capitalism The degree of competition, role of intervention and regulation, and scope of state ownership varies across different models of capitalism.[5] Economists, political economists, and historians have taken different perspectives in their analysis of capitalism and recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire capitalism, welfare capitalism, crony capitalism and state capitalism; each highlighting varying degrees of dependency on markets, public ownership, and inclusion of social policies. The extent to which different markets are free, as well as the rules defining private property, is a matter of politics and policy. Many states have what are termed capitalist mixed economies, referring to a mix between planned and market-driven elements.[6] Capitalism has existed under many forms of government, in many different times, places, and cultures.[7] Following the demise of feudalism, capitalism became the dominant economic system in the Western world. Etymology[edit]
Anarchism The central tendency of anarchism as a social movement has been represented by anarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism, with individualist anarchism being primarily a literary phenomenon[25] which nevertheless did have an impact on the bigger currents[26] and individualists have also participated in large anarchist organisations.[27][28] Many anarchists oppose all forms of aggression, supporting self-defense or non-violence (anarcho-pacifism),[29][30] while others have supported the use of some coercive measures, including violent revolution and propaganda of the deed, on the path to an anarchist society.[31] Etymology and terminology[edit] The term anarchism is a compound word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism,[32] themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i.e. anarchy[33][34][35] (from ἄναρχος, anarchos, meaning "one without rulers";[36] from the privative prefix ἀν- (an-, i.e. History[edit] Origins[edit] First International and the Paris Commune[edit]
Étienne Cabet Étienne Cabet Étienne Cabet (* 1. Januar 1788 in Dijon , Frankreich ; † 8. Leben und Wirken [ Bearbeiten ] Cabet gehörte nach Abschluss seines Jurastudiums 1812 zunächst zu den Gegnern Napoleons , übernahm aber die Verteidigung von dessen Anhängern, als ihnen nach der Niederlage von Waterloo der Prozess gemacht wurde. Enttäuscht von dem autoritären Verhalten und der sozialen Kälte des Bürgerkönigs wurde Cabet zum Sozialisten . Dort gelangte er in Verbindung zum Philanthropen Robert Owen , dessen Ideen in ihm den Plan reifen ließen, sozialistische Strukturen in Frankreich zu realisieren. Aufgrund seines aufbrausenden Temperaments und seines Geltungsbedürfnisses isolierte Cabet sich zunehmend. Werke (Auswahl) [ Bearbeiten ] Literatur [ Bearbeiten ] Joachim Höppner, Waltraud Seidel-Höppner: Etienne Cabet und seine ikarische Kolonie. Personenartikel in älteren Lexika Einzelnachweise [ Bearbeiten ] ↑ Emil Weller: Lexicon pseudonymorum. Weblinks [ Bearbeiten ]
Nazism Nazism, or National Socialism in full (German: Nationalsozialismus), is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and state as well as other related far-right groups. Usually characterised as a form of fascism that incorporates scientific racism and antisemitism, Nazism originally developed from the influences of pan-Germanism, the Völkisch German nationalist movement and the anti-communist Freikorps paramilitary culture in post-First World War Germany, which many Germans felt had been left humiliated by the Treaty of Versailles. German Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and social Darwinism, asserted the superiority of an Aryan master race, and criticised both capitalism and communism for being associated with Jewish materialism. The Nazi Party was founded as the pan-German nationalist and antisemitic German Workers' Party in January 1919. Etymology Position in the political spectrum Origins Völkisch nationalism
The indicators: an overview | Measuring well-being | Learn | National Accounts of Well-being The National Accounts of Well-being indicators on this website represent a working model of measures which governments can use to monitor the well-being of their citizens. The indicators have been constructed by nef, using data from the 2006-2007 European Social Survey . This is the most comprehensive and detailed international survey of well-being ever undertaken. The resulting survey dataset was used to develop an indicator set around two headline measures of personal well-being and social well-being : the two crucial aspects of how people experience their lives. In addition, the personal well-being and social well-being indicators can be brought together in different ways to form versions of a combined well-being indicator . The indicators were created by standardising and transforming the survey data so that all results are presented on 0–10 scales, with a score of 5 always representing the average score across the 22 European countries included.
Étienne Cabet Étienne Cabet (January 1, 1788 – November 9, 1856) was a French philosopher and utopian socialist . He was the founder of the Icarian movement and led a group of emigrants to found a new society in the United States . Biography [ edit ] Cabet was born in Dijon , Côte-d'Or . Due to his bitter attacks on the government he was accused of treason in 1834 and fled to England , seeking political asylum . In 1839, Cabet returned to France to advocate a communitarian social movement , for which he invented the term communisme . [ 3 ] Cabet's notion of a communal society influenced other socialist writers and philosophers, notably Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Some of these other writers ignored Cabet's Christian influences , as described in his book Le vrai christianisme suivant Jésus Christ ( The real Christianity according to Jesus Christ , in five volumes). In 1848, Cabet gave up on the notion of reforming French society [ disambiguation needed ] . References [ edit ]
Feudalism Feudalism was a set of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a system for structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour. Although derived from the Latin word feodum or feudum (fief),[1] then in use, the term feudalism and the system it describes were not conceived of as a formal political system by the people living in the medieval period. In its classic definition, by François-Louis Ganshof (1944),[2] feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals and fiefs.[2] There is also a broader definition, as described by Marc Bloch (1939), that includes not only warrior nobility but all three estates of the realm: the nobility, the clerics and the peasantry bonds of manorialism; this is sometimes referred to as a "feudal society". Definition
Hannah Arendt Life and career[edit] Arendt was born into a secular family of German Jews in Linden (present-day Hanover), the daughter of Martha (born Cohn) and Paul Arendt.[7] She grew up in Königsberg (renamed Kaliningrad and annexed to the Soviet Union in 1946) and Berlin. At the University of Marburg, she studied philosophy with Martin Heidegger. According to Hans Jonas, her only German-Jewish classmate, Arendt embarked on a long and stormy romantic relationship with Heidegger, for which she later was criticized because of Heidegger's support for the Nazi Party when he was rector at the University of Freiburg. In the wake of one of their breakups, Arendt moved to Heidelberg, where she wrote her dissertation under the existentialist philosopher-psychologist Karl Jaspers on the concept of love in the thought of Saint Augustine. In 1929, in Berlin, she married Günther Stern, later known as Günther Anders. Paris[edit] New York[edit] Post-war[edit] Death[edit] Works[edit] The Origins of Totalitarianism[edit]
Wirtschaftsrechnung im Sozialismus Die Debatte über die Wirtschaftsrechnung im Sozialismus (engl. Calculation Debate ) war eine wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Auseinandersetzung, die zuerst 1920 und 1922 durch Ludwig von Mises angestoßen und später unter anderem von Friedrich August von Hayek , Trygve J. B. Hoff , Wilhelm Röpke , Lionel Robbins und Abram Bergson fortgeführt wurde. Mises' und seiner Nachfolger radikale Absicht hierbei war, theoretisch die „Undurchführbarkeit“ des Sozialismus zu beweisen. Grundgedanke [ Bearbeiten ] Mises behauptete, dass eine Wirtschaft, die durch zentrale Planentscheidungen gesteuert werde und somit den Markt und die freie Preisbildung ausschalte, zu einer realistischen Rechnungsweise – also zu einer rationalen Verwendung ihrer Ressourcen – nicht in der Lage sei. „Wir haben zeigen können, worin die Undurchführbarkeit sozialistischer Wirtschaftsordnung zu suchen ist. Literatur [ Bearbeiten ] Primärliteratur [ Bearbeiten ] Sekundärliteratur [ Bearbeiten ] David M. Einzelnachweise [ Bearbeiten ]
Free market For economic systems coordinated by either free markets or regulated markets, see Market economy. A free market is a market system in which the prices for goods and services are set freely by consent between sellers and consumers, in which the laws and forces of supply and demand are free from any intervention by a government, price-setting monopoly, or other authority. A free market contrasts with a controlled market or regulated market, in which government intervenes in supply and demand through non-market methods such as laws creating barriers to market entry or directly setting prices. A free market economy is a market-based economy where prices for goods and services are set freely by the forces of supply and demand and are allowed to reach their point of equilibrium without intervention by government policy, and it typically entails support for highly competitive markets and private ownership of productive enterprises. Economic systems[edit] Laissez-faire economics[edit] Notes[edit]
Economic calculation problem Mises argued in "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if a public entity owned all the means of production, no rational prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods and not "objects of exchange," unlike final goods. Therefore, they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily irrational, as the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently.[1] He wrote "...that rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth. Theory[edit] Comparing heterogeneous goods[edit] Since capital goods and labor are highly heterogeneous (i.e., they have different characteristics that pertain to physical productivity), economic calculation requires a common basis for comparison for all forms of capital and labour. Relating utility to capital and consumption goods[edit] Entrepreneurship[edit] Example[edit]