Recapitulation theory
The theory of recapitulation, also called the biogenetic law or embryological parallelism— often expressed in Ernst Haeckel's phrase as "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"—is a largely discredited biological hypothesis that in developing from embryo to adult, animals go through stages resembling or representing successive stages in the evolution of their remote ancestors. With different formulations, such ideas have been applied and extended to several fields and areas, including the origin of language, religion, biology, cognition and mental activities,[1] anthropology,[2] education theory[3] and developmental psychology.[4] While examples of embryonic stages show that molecular features of ancestral organisms exist, the theory of recapitulation itself has been viewed within the field of developmental biology as a historical side-note rather than as dogma.[5][6][7] In contrast, there is no consensus against the validity of the theory outside biology. Origins[edit] Haeckel[edit]
Kübler-Ross model
The model was first introduced by Swiss-American Psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross in her 1969 book, On Death and Dying, and was inspired by her work with terminally ill patients.[1] Motivated by the lack of curriculum in medical schools on the subject of death and dying, Kübler-Ross began a project which examined death and those faced with it while working as an instructor at the University of Chicago's medical school. Kübler-Ross' project evolved into a series of seminars which, along with patient interviews and previous research became the foundation for her book, and revolutionized how the U.S. medical field takes care of the terminally ill. In the decades since the publication of "On Death and Dying", the Kübler-Ross concept has become largely accepted by the general public; however, its validity has yet to be consistently supported by the majority of research studies that have examined it[citation needed]. Stages[edit] The stages, popularly known by the acronym DABDA, include:[2]
Flynn effect
Test score increases have been continuous and approximately linear from the earliest years of testing to the present. For the Raven's Progressive Matrices test, subjects born over a 100-year period were compared in Des Moines, Iowa, and separately in Dumfries, Scotland. Improvements were remarkably consistent across the whole period, in both countries.[1] This effect of an apparent increase in IQ has also been observed in various other parts of the world, though the rates of increase vary.[2] There are numerous proposed explanations of the Flynn effect, as well as some skepticism about its implications. Origin of term[edit] Rise in IQ[edit] IQ tests are updated periodically. Ulric Neisser estimates that using the IQ values of today the average IQ of the United States in 1932, according to the first Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales standardization sample, was 80. Some studies have found the gains of the Flynn effect to be particularly concentrated at the lower end of the distribution.
Forer effect
A related and more general phenomenon is that of subjective validation.[1] Subjective validation occurs when two unrelated or even random events are perceived to be related because a belief, expectation, or hypothesis demands a relationship. Thus people seek a correspondence between their perception of their personality and the contents of a horoscope. Forer's demonstration[edit] On average, the students rated its accuracy as 4.26 on a scale of 0 (very poor) to 5 (excellent). In another study examining the Forer effect, students took the MMPI personality assessment and researchers evaluated their responses. The Forer effect is also known as the "Barnum effect". Repeating the study[edit] Two factors are important in producing the effect, according to the findings of replication studies. The effect is consistently found when the assessment statements are vague. In 2011, the study was repeated with the statements altered so that they applied to organisations rather than individuals.
Kohlberg's Moral Stages
W.C. Crain. (1985). Theories of Development. Prentice-Hall. pp. 118-136. An outstanding example of research in the Piagetian tradition is the work of Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg, who was born in 1927, grew up in Bronxville, New York, and attended the Andover Academy in Massachusetts, a private high school for bright and usually wealthy students. Kohlberg is an informal, unassuming man who also is a true scholar; he has thought long and deeply about a wide range of issues in both psychology and philosophy and has done much to help others appreciate the wisdom of many of the "old psychologists," such as Rousseau, John Dewey, and James Mark Baldwin. Piaget studied many aspects of moral judgment, but most of his findings fit into a two-stage theory. At approximately the same time--10 or 11 years--children's moral thinking undergoes other shifts. Intellectual development, however, does not stop at this point. The basic interview consists of a series of dilemmas such as the following: Summary
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence, first developed by Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980). It is primarily known as a developmental stage theory but, in fact, it deals with the nature of knowledge itself and how humans come gradually to acquire, construct, and use it. To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience. Nature of intelligence: operative and figurative[edit] Piaget noted reality in the sense of as a dynamic system of continuous change and, as such, is defined in reference to the two conditions that define dynamic systems. Operative intelligence is the active aspect of intelligence. At any time, operative intelligence frames how the world is understood and it changes if understanding is not successful. Assimilation and accommodation[edit] Sensorimotor stage[edit]
