Disability Impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions Disability is the experience of any condition that makes it more difficult for a person to do certain activities or have equitable access within a given society. Disabilities may be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, sensory, or a combination of multiple factors. Disabilities can be present from birth or can be acquired during a person's lifetime. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities defines disability as: long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder [a person's] full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others.[2] Disabilities have been perceived differently throughout history, through a variety of different theoretical lenses. There are many different terms that exist to explain different aspects relating to disability. History[edit] Theory[edit] Medical model[edit]
Cultural hegemony Marxist theory of cultural dominance The Marxist intellectual Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937) developed cultural hegemony to explain the social-control structures of society, and said that the working-class intelligentsia must generate a working-class ideology to counter the worldview (cultural hegemony) of the ruling class. Background[edit] Historical[edit] In 1848, Karl Marx proposed that the economic recessions and practical contradictions of a capitalist economy would provoke the working class to proletarian revolution, depose capitalism, restructure social institutions (economic, political, social) per the rational models of socialism, and thus begin the transition to a communist society. Therefore, the dialectical changes to the functioning of the economy of a society determine its social superstructures (culture and politics). To that end, Antonio Gramsci proposed a strategic distinction between the politics for a War of Position and for a War of Manœuvre. Political economy[edit]
Critical thinking Analysis of facts to form a judgment Critical thinking is the analysis of available facts, evidence, observations, and arguments in order to form a judgement by the application of rational, skeptical, and unbiased analyses and evaluation.[1] The application of critical thinking includes self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective habits of the mind;[2] thus, a critical thinker is a person who practices the skills of critical thinking or has been trained and educated in its disciplines.[3] Philosopher Richard W. Paul said that the mind of a critical thinker engages the person's intellectual abilities and personality traits.[4] Critical thinking presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use in effective communication and problem solving, and a commitment to overcome egocentrism and sociocentrism.[5][6] In the classical period (5th c.–4th c. Etymology and origin of critical thinking [edit] Logic and rationality Kerry S. In sum:
Essentially contested concept In a paper delivered to the Aristotelian Society on 12 March 1956,[1] Walter Bryce Gallie (1912–1998) introduced the term essentially contested concept to facilitate an understanding of the different applications or interpretations of the sorts of abstract, qualitative, and evaluative notions[2]—such as "art", "philanthropy",[3] "power"[4] and "social justice"—used in the domains of aesthetics, sustainable development, political philosophy, philosophy of history, and philosophy of religion. Garver (1978) describes their use as follows: Essentially contested concepts involve widespread agreement on a concept (e.g., "fairness"), but not on the best realization thereof.[6] They are "concepts the proper use of which inevitably involves endless disputes about their proper uses on the part of their users",[7] and these disputes "cannot be settled by appeal to empirical evidence, linguistic usage, or the canons of logic alone".[8] Identifying the presence of a dispute[edit] Features[edit]
Corporate social responsibility Form of corporate self-regulation aimed at contributing to social or charitable goals Considered at the organisational level, CSR is generally understood as a strategic initiative that contributes to a brand's reputation.[7] As such, social responsibility initiatives must coherently align with and be integrated into a business model to be successful. With some models, a firm's implementation of CSR goes beyond compliance with regulatory requirements and engages in "actions that appear to further some social good, beyond the interests of the firm and that which is required by law".[8] Proponents argue that corporations increase long-term profits by operating with a CSR perspective, while critics argue that CSR distracts from businesses' economic role. A wide variety of definitions have been developed, but with little consensus. Consumer perspectives [edit] Businesses have changed when the public came to expect and require different behavior [...] The five principles of the TRE are:
Face-to-face (philosophy) Philosophical concept described by Emmanuel Lévinas Lévinas' account of the face-to-face encounter bears many similarities to Martin Buber's "I and Thou" relation. Its influence is also particularly pronounced in Jacques Derrida's ethical writings. (However, some post-structuralist thinkers maintain that Derrida does not agree with Lévinas. See, perhaps most significantly, Martin Hägglund.) The major difference between Buber's account of the I and Thou relation and the ethics of the face-to-face encounter is the application of Lévinas' asymmetry towards the other. In the face-to-face encounter we also see how Lévinas splits ethics from morality. Philosophy portalFace time
Core sphere Within the field of microeconomics, the "core sphere" of the economy consists of households, families, and community groups that organize the many important economic activities central to sustaining human life.[1] Neva Goodwin of Tufts University outlines the functions of the core sphere to include: Child bearing and child raisingCare of the sick, elderly, or otherwise needyThe final stage of production of many goods and servicesThe organization of savings and investmentAllocation of consumption spendingDecisions regarding investing in and maintaining human capitalDecisions regarding the supply of labor servicesThe organization and use of leisure time These human resources make up the core sphere of the economy, and they play significant roles in our lives. It was noted by Goodwin that if a monetary value were placed on the work generated by the core sphere in the United States, it would add to approximately $3.9 trillion and would account for approximately 30% of the total product.
Convention (norm) Set of agreed, stipulated, or generally accepted standards A convention is a set of agreed, stipulated, or generally accepted standards, social norms, or other criteria, often taking the form of a custom. In a social context, a convention may retain the character of an "unwritten law" of custom (for example, the manner in which people greet each other, such as by shaking each other's hands). Certain types of rules or customs may become law and sometimes they may be further codified to formalize or enforce the convention (for example, laws that define on which side of the road vehicles must be driven). In physical sciences, numerical values (such as constants, quantities, or scales of measurement) are called conventional if they do not represent a measured property of nature, but originate in a convention, for example an average of many measurements, agreed between the scientists working with these values. General[edit] Customary or social conventions[edit] Social[edit] Government[edit]
False necessity Contemporary social theory False necessity, or anti-necessitarian social theory, is a contemporary social theory that argues for the plasticity of social organizations and their potential to be shaped in new ways. The theory rejects the assumption that laws of change govern the history of human societies and limit human freedom.[1] It is a critique of "necessitarian" thought in conventional social theories (like liberalism or Marxism) which hold that parts of the social order are necessary or the result of the natural flow of history. The theory rejects the idea that human societies must be organized in a certain way (for example, liberal democracy) and that human activity will adhere to certain forms (for example if people were only motivated by rational self-interest). False necessity uses structural analysis to understand sociopolitical arrangements, but discards the tendency to assemble indivisible categories and to create law-like explanations. Development and content [edit]
Family of choice Alternative concept of family A family of choice, also known as chosen family, found family, kith and kin, or hānai family[1] is a term that refers to a non-biologically related group of people established to provide ongoing social support.[2] Unlike a "family of origin" (the biological family or that in which one is raised), a family of choice is based on chosen bonds, not biological ones. Families of choice are common within the LGBT community, groups of veterans, supportive communities overcoming addiction or childhood abuse, and friend groups who have little to no contact with their biological parents. It refers to the group of people in an individual's life that satisfies the typical role of family as a support system. Family of choice in the LGBT community[edit] LGBT individuals in particular often seek out families of choice when ostracism by their families of origin leave them in need of social support. See also[edit] References[edit]
Conspiracies against the laity On the subject of such conspiracies, Tim Harford argued the following in his 2006 book The Undercover Economist, that "doctors, actuaries, accountants and lawyers manage to maintain high wages through... erecting virtual 'green belts' to make it hard for competitors to set up shop. Typical virtual green belts will include very long qualification periods and professional bodies that give their approval only to a certain number of candidates per year. Many of the organisations that are put forth to protect us from 'unqualified' professionals in fact serve to maintain the high rates of the 'qualified' to whom we are directed." Shaw's sentiments echo Adam Smith's earlier writing: "People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices."[1] ^ Smith, A., An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 1776.