Gamma-ray burst Artist's illustration showing the life of a massive star as nuclear fusion converts lighter elements into heavier ones. When fusion no longer generates enough pressure to counteract gravity, the star rapidly collapses to form a black hole. Theoretically, energy may be released during the collapse along the axis of rotation to form a gamma-ray burst. Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are flashes of gamma rays associated with extremely energetic explosions that have been observed in distant galaxies. They are the brightest electromagnetic events known to occur in the universe.[1] Bursts can last from ten milliseconds to several minutes. The initial burst is usually followed by a longer-lived "afterglow" emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, microwave and radio).[2] On November 21, 2013, NASA released detailed data about one of the strongest gamma-ray burst, designated GRB 130427A, that was observed on April 27, 2013.[7][8] History[edit] Afterglow[edit]
Hypernova Eta Carinae, in the constellation of Carina, one of the nearer candidates for a future hypernova A hypernova (pl. hypernovae) is a type of supernova explosion with an energy substantially higher than that of standard supernovae. An alternative term for most hypernovae is "superluminous supernovae" (SLSNe). Such explosions are believed to be the origin of long-duration gamma-ray bursts.[1] Just like supernovae in general, hypernovae are produced by several different types of stellar explosion: some well modelled and observed in recent years, some still tentatively suggested for observed hypernovae, and some entirely theoretical. Numerous hypernovae have been observed corresponding to supernovae type Ic and type IIn, and possibly also at least one of type IIb.[2] The word collapsar, short for collapsed star, was formerly used to refer to the end product of stellar gravitational collapse, a stellar-mass black hole. History of the term[edit] Gamma-ray bursts[edit] Causes of hypernovae[edit]
White dwarf Artist's concept of white dwarf aging. A white dwarf, also called a degenerate dwarf, is a stellar remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter. They are very dense; a white dwarf's mass is comparable to that of the Sun, and its volume is comparable to that of the Earth. Its faint luminosity comes from the emission of stored thermal energy.[1] The nearest known white dwarf is Sirius B, 8.6 light years away, the smaller component of the Sirius binary star. White dwarfs are thought to be the final evolutionary state of all stars whose mass is not high enough to become a neutron star—over 97% of the stars in the Milky Way.[5], §1. The material in a white dwarf no longer undergoes fusion reactions, so the star has no source of energy, nor is it supported by the heat generated by fusion against gravitational collapse. A white dwarf is very hot when it is formed, but since it has no source of energy, it will gradually radiate away its energy and cool. Discovery[edit] White dwarfs
Neutron star Neutron stars contain 500,000 times the mass of the Earth in a sphere with a diameter no larger than that of Brooklyn, United States A neutron star is a type of stellar remnant that can result from the gravitational collapse of a massive star during a Type II, Type Ib or Type Ic supernova event. Neutron stars are the densest and tiniest stars known to exist in the universe; although having only the diameter of about 10 km (6 mi), they may have a mass of several times that of the Sun. Neutron stars probably appear white to the naked eye. Neutron stars are the end points of stars whose inert core's mass after nuclear burning is greater than the Chandrasekhar limit for white dwarfs, but whose mass is not great enough to overcome the neutron degeneracy pressure to become black holes. Such stars are composed almost entirely of neutrons, which are subatomic particles without net electrical charge and with slightly larger mass than protons. Neutron star collision Formation[edit] Properties[edit]
Magnetar Artist's conception of a magnetar, with magnetic field lines. Description[edit] Like other neutron stars, magnetars are around 20 kilometres (10 mi) in diameter and have a greater mass than the Sun. The density of the interior of a magnetar is such that a thimble full of its substance would have a mass of over 100 million tons.[1] Magnetars are differentiated from other neutron stars by having even stronger magnetic fields, and rotating comparatively slowly, with most magnetars completing a rotation once every one to ten seconds,[7] compared to less than one second for a typical neutron star. This magnetic field gives rise to very strong and characteristic bursts of X-rays and gamma rays. The active life of a magnetar is short. Magnetic field[edit] As described in the February 2003 Scientific American cover story, remarkable things happen within a magnetic field of magnetar strength. Origins of magnetic fields[edit] Formation[edit] 1979 discovery[edit] Recent discoveries[edit] See also[edit]
Quark A quark (/ˈkwɔrk/ or /ˈkwɑrk/) is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei.[1] Due to a phenomenon known as color confinement, quarks are never directly observed or found in isolation; they can be found only within hadrons, such as baryons (of which protons and neutrons are examples), and mesons.[2][3] For this reason, much of what is known about quarks has been drawn from observations of the hadrons themselves. The quark model was independently proposed by physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964.[5] Quarks were introduced as parts of an ordering scheme for hadrons, and there was little evidence for their physical existence until deep inelastic scattering experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in 1968.[6][7] Accelerator experiments have provided evidence for all six flavors. Classification[edit]
Pulsar The precise periods of pulsars makes them useful tools. Observations of a pulsar in a binary neutron star system were used to indirectly confirm the existence of gravitational radiation. The first extrasolar planets were discovered around a pulsar, PSR B1257+12. Certain types of pulsars rival atomic clocks in their accuracy in keeping time. History of observation[edit] Discovery[edit] The first pulsar was observed on November 28, 1967, by Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish.[1][2][3] They observed pulses separated by 1.33 seconds that originated from the same location on the sky, and kept to sidereal time. The word "pulsar" is a contraction of "pulsating star",[7] and first appeared in print in 1968: An entirely novel kind of star came to light on Aug. 6 last year and was referred to, by astronomers, as LGM (Little Green Men). Milestones[edit] In 1974, Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. and Russell Hulse discovered for the first time a pulsar in a binary system, PSR B1913+16. Nomenclature[edit]
The Most Distant, Dark Galaxy Ever Found! : Starts With A Bang “One mustn’t look at the abyss, because there is at the bottom an inexpressible charm which attracts us.” -Gustave Flaubert The deepest depths of space, out beyond our atmosphere, our Solar System, and even our galaxy, hold the richness of the great Universe beyond. Stretching for billions of light years in every direction, there are structures large and small, dense and sparse, everywhere we’ve ever dared to look. Image credit: R. In addition to the visible, luminous matter we see in the image above, there’s both non-luminous normal matter and dark matter. One of the easiest ways to figure this out and measure it is by looking at some chance locations in the Universe where there are two massive structures directly lined up, one-behind-the-other, relative to our line-of-sight. Image credit: ESA, NASA, K. Above is what happens when you have a galaxy cluster with both a quasar and a background galaxy directly behind it. It works the other way, too. But I digress. Image credit: S.
VY Canis Majoris VY Canis Majoris (VY CMa) is a red hypergiant in the constellation Canis Major. It is one of the largest known stars by radius and also one of the most luminous of its type. It is approximately 1,420 ± 120 solar radii[8] (equal to 6.6 astronomical units, thus a diameter about 1,975,000,000 kilometres (1.227×109 mi)), and about 1.2 kiloparsecs (3,900 light-years) distant from Earth. VY CMa is a single star categorized as a semiregular variable and has an estimated period of 2,000 days. Nature of VY Canis Majoris[edit] The first known recorded observation of VY Canis Majoris is in the star catalogue of Jérôme Lalande, on 7 March 1801, which lists VY CMa as a 7th magnitude star. Since 1847, VY CMa has been known to be a crimson star.[11] During the 19th century, observers measured at least six discrete components to VY CMa, suggesting the possibility that it was a multiple star. Measuring the distance[edit] In 1976, Charles J. Size[edit] VY Canis Majoris is a Class M hypergiant.
Astrological age There are two broad approaches about the effects upon the world due to the astrological ages. Some astrologers believe the changes upon Earth are caused and marked by the influences of the given astrological sign, associated with the Age, while other astrologers do not follow the causative model and believe it is a matter of synchronicity.[3] Many astrologers believe that the Age of Aquarius has arrived recently or will arrive in the near future. On the other hand, some believe that the Age of Aquarius arrived up to five centuries ago, or will not start until six centuries from now.[4] Despite all references provided by various sources, astrologers cannot agree upon exact dates for the beginning or ending of the ages. Various ages are described below, such as the Age of Aquarius. Overview[edit] Traditional western Zodiac signs There are three broad perspectives on the astrological ages: Contentious aspects of the astrological ages[edit] Consensus approach to the astrological ages[edit]
Astrological age There are two broad approaches about the effects upon the world due to the astrological ages. Some astrologers believe the changes upon Earth are caused and marked by the influences of the given astrological sign, associated with the Age, while other astrologers do not follow the causative model and believe it is a matter of synchronicity.[3] Many astrologers believe that the Age of Aquarius has arrived recently or will arrive in the near future. Various ages are described below, such as the Age of Aquarius. Overview[edit] Traditional western Zodiac signs There are three broad perspectives on the astrological ages: Contentious aspects of the astrological ages[edit] Definitive details on the astrological ages are lacking, and consequently most details and urban myths available about the astrological ages are contentious and disputed. "It is probable that there is no branch of Astrology upon which more nonsense has been poured forth than the doctrine of the precession of the equinoxes."
The Number 9 | The Secret Knowledge of The Ancients Number Nine Code 911 The number 9 is the last number in a base 10 system which is the last and limit of all that is. Nine is a number which has many interesting qualities that other numbers do not have and has been used to hold a hidden code that affects every person on earth. If you think nine is just another number, you are in for a big surprise. The number 9 is very interesting and suspect looking like an upside down 6. Even more interesting, there is something about it that most people and scientists don't know. There are small coincidences that all add up to something universally amazing which was created for us then given to mankind through Enoch, which he wrote down on stone tablets and passed down to his great grandson Noah which built the arc. The 9 code is everywhere for us to see if we are willing to search for it. The Intelligent design of our universe is geometrical and congruent forming beautiful shapes and images with the number 9 as a proof of concept stamp on it given by God.