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Mereology

Mereology
Mereology has been axiomatized in various ways as applications of predicate logic to formal ontology, of which mereology is an important part. A common element of such axiomatizations is the assumption, shared with inclusion, that the part-whole relation orders its universe, meaning that everything is a part of itself (reflexivity), that a part of a part of a whole is itself a part of that whole (transitivity), and that two distinct entities cannot each be a part of the other (antisymmetry). A variant of this axiomatization denies that anything is ever part of itself (irreflexive) while accepting transitivity, from which antisymmetry follows automatically. Standard university texts on logic and mathematics are silent about mereology, which has undoubtedly contributed to its obscurity. History[edit] A.N. In 1930, Henry Leonard completed a Harvard Ph.D. dissertation in philosophy, setting out a formal theory of the part-whole relation. Axioms and primitive notions[edit] The axioms are:

Semantic network Typical standardized semantic networks are expressed as semantic triples. History[edit] Example of a semantic network "Semantic Nets" were first invented for computers by Richard H. Richens of the Cambridge Language Research Unit in 1956 as an "interlingua" for machine translation of natural languages.[2] They were independently developed by Robert F. In the late 1980s, two Netherlands universities, Groningen and Twente, jointly began a project called Knowledge Graphs, which are semantic networks but with the added constraint that edges are restricted to be from a limited set of possible relations, to facilitate algebras on the graph.[12] In the subsequent decades, the distinction between semantic networks and knowledge graphs was blurred.[13][14] In 2012, Google gave their knowledge graph the name Knowledge Graph. Basics of semantic networks[edit] A semantic network is used when one has knowledge that is best understood as a set of concepts that are related to one another. Examples[edit]

Gunk (mereology) In mereology, an area of philosophical logic, the term gunk applies to any whole whose parts all have further proper parts. That is, a gunky object is not made of indivisible atoms: If something is made of atomless gunk then it divides forever into smaller and smaller parts—it is infinitely divisible. However, a line segment is infinitely divisible, and yet has atomic parts: the points. If point-sized objects are always simple, then a gunky object does not have any point-sized parts. Gunk is an important test case for accounts of the composition of material objects: for instance, Ted Sider has challenged Peter van Inwagen's account of composition because it is inconsistent with the possibility of gunk. Gunk has also played an important role in the history of topology[citation needed] (Zimmerman 1996a) and in recent debates concerning change, contact, and the structure of physical space. The term was first used by David Lewis in his work Parts of Classes (1991).

untitled Part I. Getting Started Chapter 1. 1.1. rdf:about Sesame 2 ¶ 1.1.1. Sesame is an open source Java framework for storage and querying of RDF data. Of course, a framework isn't very useful without implementations of the various APIs. Originally, Sesame was developed by Aduna (then known as Aidministrator) as a research prototype for the hugely successful EU research project On-To-Knowledge. Sesame is currently developed as a community project, with Aduna as the project leader. 1.1.2. This user manual covers most aspects of working with Sesame in a variety of settings. The basics of programming with Sesame are covered in chapter-repository-api. chapter-http-protocol gives an overview of the structure of the HTTP REST protocol for the Sesame Server, which is useful if you want to communicate with a Sesame Server from a programming language other than Java. Chapter 2. 2.1. Sesame releases can be downloaded from Sourceforge. openrdf-sesame-(version)-sdk.tar.gz. 2.1.1. 2.1.2. 2.2. 2.3. 2.3.1.

General formal ontology includes objects as well as processes and both are integrated into one coherent system,includes levels of reality,[2]is designed to support interoperability by principles of ontological mapping and reduction,contains several novel ontological modules, in particular, a module for functions and a module for roles, andis designed for applications, firstly in medical, biological, and biomedical areas, but also in the fields of economics and sociology. Taxonomic tree of GFO[edit] Basic taxonomic tree of the General Formal Ontology Categories[edit] The common property of all categories is that they can be predicated of an entity. Conceptual structures are mental representations of entities or universals, and they exist in an agent's mind. Symbolic structures are signs which may be instantiated by tokens. Space and time[edit] Connected three-dimensional parts of space are called "topoids". Processes and objects[edit] See also[edit] References[edit] External links[edit]

Semantic University Semantic University is the largest and most accessible source of educational material relating to semantics and Semantic Web technologies. It includes: Lessons suitable to those brand new to the space. Comparisons, both high-level and in-depth, with related technologies, such as SQL, NoSQL and Big Data. Interactive, hands on tutorials. There's much more, too—learn more about Semantic University. Semantic University content is split into two sections, each with several tracks. Every lesson comes with its own Forum for further discussion.

Upper ontology The seemingly conflicting use of metaphors implying a solid rigorous bottom-up "foundation" or a top-down imposition of somewhat arbitrary, and possibly political, decisions is no accident – the field is characterized by the usual mix of controversy, politics, competing approaches and academic rivalry. Some upper ontologies have led to commercial products, causing a financial incentive to promote one ontology over the competing systems. Debates notwithstanding, it can be said that a very important part of each upper ontology can be considered as the computational implementation of natural philosophy, which itself is a more empirical method for investigating the topics within the philosophical discipline of physical ontology. Library classification systems predate these upper ontology systems. Though library classifications organize and categorize knowledge using general concepts that are the same across all knowledge domains, neither system is a replacement for the other. Cyc[edit]

YAGO - D5: Databases and Information Systems (Max-Planck-Institut für Informatik) Overview YAGO is a huge semantic knowledge base, derived from Wikipedia WordNet and GeoNames. Currently, YAGO has knowledge of more than 10 million entities (like persons, organizations, cities, etc.) and contains more than 120 million facts about these entities. YAGO is special in several ways: The accuracy of YAGO has been manually evaluated, proving a confirmed accuracy of 95%. YAGO is developed jointly with the DBWeb group at Télécom ParisTech University. Philosophy of mathematics The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of philosophy that studies the philosophical assumptions, foundations, and implications of mathematics. The aim of the philosophy of mathematics is to provide an account of the nature and methodology of mathematics and to understand the place of mathematics in people's lives. The logical and structural nature of mathematics itself makes this study both broad and unique among its philosophical counterparts. The terms philosophy of mathematics and mathematical philosophy are frequently used as synonyms.[1] The latter, however, may be used to refer to several other areas of study. One refers to a project of formalizing a philosophical subject matter, say, aesthetics, ethics, logic, metaphysics, or theology, in a purportedly more exact and rigorous form, as for example the labors of scholastic theologians, or the systematic aims of Leibniz and Spinoza. Recurrent themes[edit] Recurrent themes include: History[edit] 20th century[edit] Major themes[edit]

Freebase Freebase is a large collaborative knowledge base consisting of metadata composed mainly by its community members. It is an online collection of structured data harvested from many sources, including individual 'wiki' contributions.[2] Freebase aims to create a global resource which allows people (and machines) to access common information more effectively. It was developed by the American software company Metaweb and has been running publicly since March 2007. Metaweb was acquired by Google in a private sale announced July 16, 2010.[3] Google's Knowledge Graph is powered in part by Freebase.[4] Freebase data is freely available for commercial and non-commercial use under a Creative Commons Attribution License, and an open API, RDF endpoint, and database dump are provided for programmers. Overview[edit] Described by Tim O'Reilly upon their launch, "Freebase is the bridge between the bottom up vision of Web 2.0 collective intelligence and the more structured world of the semantic web

Substance theory Ancient Greek philosophy[edit] A substance—that which is called a substance most strictly, primarily, and most of all—is that which is neither said of a subject nor in a subject, e.g. the individual man or the individual horse. The species in which the things primarily called substances are, are called secondary substances, as also are the genera of these species. For example, the individual man belongs in a species, man, and animal is a genus of the species; so these—both man and animal—are called secondary substances.[2]—Aristotle, Categories 2a13, (trans. J.L. Ackrill) Neither the "bare particulars" nor "property bundles" of modern theory have their antecedent in Aristotle, according to whom, all matter exists in some form. However, according to Aristotle's theology, a form of invariant form exists without matter, beyond the cosmos, powerless and oblivious, in the eternal substance of the unmoved movers. Early Western philosophy[edit] Locke defined substance as follows: Inherence[edit]

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