Word stem In linguistics, a stem is a part of a word. The term is used with slightly different meanings. In a slightly different usage, which is adopted in the remainder of this article, a word has a single stem, namely the part of the word that is common to all its inflected variants.[2] Thus, in this usage, all derivational affixes are part of the stem. For example, the stem of friendships is friendship, to which the inflectional suffix -s is attached. Citation forms and bound morphemes[edit] In languages with very little inflection, such as English and Chinese, the stem is usually not distinct from the "normal" form of the word (the lemma, citation or dictionary form). In computational linguistics, a stem is the part of the word that never changes even when morphologically inflected, whilst a lemma is the base form of the word. Paradigms and suppletion[edit] A list of all the inflected forms of a stem is called its inflectional paradigm. good (positive); better (comparative); best (superlative)
Agglutinative language An agglutinative language is a type of synthetic language with morphology that primarily uses agglutination: words are formed by joining phonetically unchangeable affix morphemes to the stem. In agglutinative languages, each affix is a bound morpheme for one unit of meaning (such as "diminutive", "past tense", "plural", etc.), instead of morphological modifications with internal changes of the root of the word, or changes in stress or tone. In an agglutinative language stems do not change, affixes do not fuse with other affixes, and affixes do not change form conditioned by other affixes. The term agglutinative is sometimes incorrectly used as a synonym for synthetic. The agglutinative and fusional languages are two ends of a continuum, with various languages falling more toward one or the other end. Agglutinative languages tend to have a high rate of affixes/morphemes per word, and to be very regular, in particular with very few irregular verbs. Examples[edit] References[edit]
Affix Positional categories of affixes[edit] Affixes are divided into plenty of categories, depending on their position with reference to the stem. Prefix and suffix are extremely common terms. Infix and circumfix are less so, as they are not important in European languages. The other terms are uncommon. Prefix and suffix may be subsumed under the term adfix in contrast to infix. When marking text for interlinear glossing, as in the third column in the chart above, simple affixes such as prefixes and suffixes are separated from the stem with hyphens. Lexical affixes[edit] Lexical affixes (or semantic affixes) are bound elements that appear as affixes, but function as incorporated nouns within verbs and as elements of compound nouns. Lexical affixes are relatively rare. The lexical suffixes of these languages often show little to no resemblance to free nouns with similar meanings. Lexical suffixes when compared with free nouns often have a more generic or general meaning. See also[edit]
Esperanto Esperanto (/ɛspəˈrɑːntoʊ/ or /-ræntoʊ/; [espeˈranto] listen ) is the most widely spoken constructed international auxiliary language.[4] Its name derives from Doktoro Esperanto ("Esperanto" translates as "one who hopes"), the pseudonym under which L. L. Zamenhof published the first book detailing Esperanto, the Unua Libro, on July 26, 1887. Zamenhof's goal was to create an easy-to-learn, politically neutral language that would transcend nationality and foster peace and international understanding between people with different languages. Estimates of Esperanto speakers range from 100,000 to 2,000,000 active or fluent speakers worldwide, including perhaps a thousand native speakers who learned Esperanto from birth as one of their native languages. The first World Congress of Esperanto was organized in France in 1905. History[edit] Creation[edit] The first Esperanto book by L. "The place where I was born and spent my childhood gave direction to all my future struggles. Early proposals[edit]
Inflection Inflection of the Portuguese or Spanish lexeme for "cat", which produces the forms gato, gata, gatos and gatas. Blue represents masculine gender, pink represents feminine gender, grey represents the form used for mixed gender; green represents plural number, while singular number is unmarked. In grammar, inflection or inflexion is the modification of a word to express different grammatical categories such as tense, mood, voice, aspect, person, number, gender and case. An inflection expresses one or more grammatical categories with a prefix, suffix or infix, or another internal modification such as a vowel change.[1] For example, the Latin verb ducam, meaning "I will lead", includes the suffix -am, expressing person (first), number (singular), and tense (future). Words that are never subject to inflection are said to be invariant; for example, the English verb must is an invariant item: it never takes a suffix or changes form to signify a different grammatical category.
Proles In Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell, proles (collective noun) refers to the working class of Oceania (i.e. the proletariat). Control by the Party[edit] As the Party slogan put it: 'Proles and animals are free.' Inner and Outer Party members are under constant telescreen surveillance in both private and public; by contrast, proles' quarters are generally free of telescreens, since they are not expected to understand their exploitation as cheap labour by the Party, and thereby unable or unwilling to organize resistance. Proles and the hope of revolution[edit] References[edit] Derivation (linguistics) In linguistics, derivation is the process of forming a new word on the basis of an existing word, e.g. happiness and unhappy from happy, or determination from determine. It often involves the addition of a morpheme in the form of an affix, such as -ness, un- and -ation in the preceding examples. Derivation stands in contrast to the process of inflection, which means the formation of grammatical variants of the same word, as with determine/determines/determining/determined.[1] Examples of English derivational patterns and their suffixes: Derivation that results in a noun may be called nominalization. Derivation can be contrasted with inflection, in that derivation produces a new word (a distinct lexeme), whereas inflection produces grammatical variants of the same word. Derivation can be contrasted with other types of word formation such as compounding. Jump up ^ Crystal, David (1999): The Penguin Dictionary of Language. - Penguin Books - England.Jump up ^ Sobin, Nicholas (2011).
The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism Background[edit] The term "oligarchical collectivism" refers not only to the Party's ideology of Ingsoc (English Socialism) but also to the ideologies of the other two states (Neo-Bolshevism in Eurasia; in Eastasia, "Death Worship" or "Obliteration of the Self"). Winston reads two long excerpts establishing[2] how the three totalitarian super-states – Oceania, Eastasia, and Eurasia – emerged from a global war, thus connecting the past and the present, and explains the basic political philosophy of the totalitarianism that derived from the authoritarian political tendencies manifested in the first part of the twentieth century. That the three "opposing" ideologies are functionally identical is central to the revelations of The Book.[original research?] James M. Contents[edit] Chapter I[edit] Ian Slater writes that Goldstein goes beyond George Orwell's beliefs in earlier work, such as A Clergyman's Daughter, in which the Middle makes a pretence of believing in equality. Chapter III[edit]
Compound (linguistics) Compound formation rules vary widely across language types. In a synthetic language, the relationship between the elements of a compound may be marked with a case or other morpheme. For example, the German compound Kapitänspatent consists of the lexemes Kapitän (sea captain) and Patent (license) joined by an -s- (originally a genitive case suffix); and similarly, the Latin lexeme paterfamilias contains the archaic genitive form familias of the lexeme familia (family). Conversely, in the Hebrew language compound, the word בֵּית סֵפֶר bet sefer (school), it is the head that is modified: the compound literally means "house-of book", with בַּיִת bayit (house) having entered the construct state to become בֵּית bet (house-of). This latter pattern is common throughout the Semitic languages, though in some it is combined with an explicit genitive case, so that both parts of the compound are marked. Agglutinative languages tend to create very long words with derivational morphemes. Dutch:
Doublespeak Origins and concepts[edit] The term "doublespeak" probably has its roots in George Orwell's book, Nineteen Eighty-Four. Although the term is not used in the book, it is a close relative of one of the book's central concepts, Doublethink. Another variant, "doubletalk," also referring to deliberately ambiguous speech, did exist at the time Orwell wrote his book, but the usage of "doublespeak" as well as of "doubletalk" in the sense emphasizing ambiguity clearly postdates the publication of Nineteen Eighty-Four.[4][5] Parallels have also been drawn between Doublespeak and Orwell's classic essay Politics and the English Language, which discusses the distortion of language for political purposes.[6] Edward S. Herman, political economist and media analyst, has highlighted some examples of doublespeak and doublethink in modern society.[7] Herman describes in his book, Beyond Hypocrisy the principal characteristics of doublespeak; Theoretical approaches[edit] Conflict theories[edit] William D. A.
Clitic Clitics can belong to any grammatical category, although they are commonly pronouns, determiners, or adpositions. Note that orthography is not always a good guide for distinguishing clitics from affixes: clitics may be written as separate words, but sometimes they are joined to the word on which they depend (like the Latin clitic que, meaning "and"), or separated by special characters such as hyphens or apostrophes (like the English clitic ’s). The word "clitic" is often used loosely for what may be better described as an affix or word. Classification[edit] Clitics fall into various categories depending on their position in relation to the word to which they are connected.[2] Proclitic[edit] A proclitic appears before its host.[2] It is common in Romance languages. Enclitic[edit] An enclitic appears after its host.[2] Latin: Senatus Populusque Romanus "Senate people-and Roman" = "The Senate and people of Rome" Ancient Greek: ánthrōpoí (te) theoí te Mesoclitic[edit] Endoclitic[edit] Prosody[edit]
State Political Directorate The Joint State Political Directorate (also translated as the All-Union State Political Administration) was the secret police of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1934. Its official name was "Joint State Political Directorate under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR" (Russian: Объединённое государственное политическое управление при СНК СССР), Obyedinyonnoye gosudarstvennoye politicheskoye upravleniye under the SNK of the USSR, or ОГПУ (OGPU). With the creation of the USSR in December 1922, a unified organization was required to exercise control over state security throughout the new union. Thus, on November 15, 1923, the Russian State Political Directorate left the Russian NKVD and became the all-union Joint State Political Directorate. Like the GPU before it, the OGPU was theoretically supposed to operate with more restraint than the original Bolshevik secret police, the Cheka. Perhaps the most spectacular success of the GPU/OGPU was the Trust Operation of 1924–1925.
Stemming Stemming programs are commonly referred to as stemming algorithms or stemmers. Examples[edit] A stemmer for English, for example, should identify the string "cats" (and possibly "catlike", "catty" etc.) as based on the root "cat", and "stemmer", "stemming", "stemmed" as based on "stem". History[edit] The first published stemmer was written by Julie Beth Lovins in 1968.[1] This paper was remarkable for its early date and had great influence on later work in this area. A later stemmer was written by Martin Porter and was published in the July 1980 issue of the journal Program. Many implementations of the Porter stemming algorithm were written and freely distributed; however, many of these implementations contained subtle flaws. Algorithms[edit] There are several types of stemming algorithms which differ in respect to performance and accuracy and how certain stemming obstacles are overcome. Lookup algorithms[edit] A simple stemmer looks up the inflected form in a lookup table. Applications[edit]