Theorem of the Day The Whole Jolly Lot (now enriched with The list is presented here in reverse chronological order, so that new additions will appear at the top. This is not the order in which the theorem of the day is picked which is more designed to mix up the different areas of mathematics and the level of abstractness or technicality involved. The way that the list of theorems is indexed is described here. Every theorem number is linked to its entry in the delightful 'Prime Curios!' All files are pdf , mostly between 100 and 300 Kbytes in size. A QED following a theorem indicates that the description includes a proof of the theorem. 211 Willans' Formula QED 210 The Basel Problem QED 209 The Erdős Discrepancy Conjecture QED ( a Theorem under construction!) 208 Toricelli's Trumpet QED 207 The Eratosthenes-Legendre Sieve QED 206 Euler's Formula QED 205 The Classification of the Semiregular Tilings 204 Singmaster's Binomial Multiplicity Bound QED ( 203 Euler's Continued Fraction Correspondence 191 L'Hospital's Rule
Fuzzy logic Fuzzy logic is a form of many-valued logic; it deals with reasoning that is approximate rather than fixed and exact. Compared to traditional binary sets (where variables may take on true or false values) fuzzy logic variables may have a truth value that ranges in degree between 0 and 1. Fuzzy logic has been extended to handle the concept of partial truth, where the truth value may range between completely true and completely false.[1] Furthermore, when linguistic variables are used, these degrees may be managed by specific functions. Irrationality can be described in terms of what is known as the fuzzjective.[citation needed] The term "fuzzy logic" was introduced with the 1965 proposal of fuzzy set theory by Lotfi A. Overview[edit] Classical logic only permits propositions having a value of truth or falsity. Both degrees of truth and probabilities range between 0 and 1 and hence may seem similar at first. Applying truth values[edit] Fuzzy logic temperature Linguistic variables[edit]
Principia Mathematica ✸54.43: "From this proposition it will follow, when arithmetical addition has been defined, that 1 + 1 = 2." —Volume I, 1st edition, page 379 (page 362 in 2nd edition; page 360 in abridged version). (The proof is actually completed in Volume II, 1st edition, page 86, accompanied by the comment, "The above proposition is occasionally useful." Τhey go on to say "It is used at least three times, in ✸113.66 and ✸120.123.472.") The title page of the shortened Principia Mathematica to ✸56 I can remember Bertrand Russell telling me of a horrible dream. Hardy, G. He [Russell] said once, after some contact with the Chinese language, that he was horrified to find that the language of Principia Mathematica was an Indo-European one Littlewood, J. The Principia Mathematica (often abbreviated PM) is a three-volume work on the foundations of mathematics written by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell and published in 1910, 1912, and 1913. PM has long been known for its typographical complexity.
Quantum Aspects of Life Quantum Aspects of Life is a 2008 science text, with a foreword by Sir Roger Penrose, which explores the open question of the role of quantum mechanics at molecular scales of relevance to biology. The book adopts a debate-like style and contains chapters written by various world-experts; giving rise to a mix of both sceptical and sympathetic viewpoints. The book addresses questions of quantum physics, biophysics, nanoscience, quantum chemistry, mathematical biology, complexity theory, and philosophy that are inspired by the 1944 seminal book What Is Life? by Erwin Schrödinger. Contents[edit] Foreword by Sir Roger Penrose Section 1: Emergence and Complexity Chapter 1: "A Quantum Origin of Life?" Section 2: Quantum Mechanisms in Biology Chapter 3: "Quantum Coherence and the Search for the First Replicator" by Jim Al-Khalili and Johnjoe McFaddenChapter 4: "Ultrafast Quantum Dynamics in Photosynthesis" by Alexandra Olaya-Castro, Francesca Fassioli Olsen, Chiu Fan Lee, and Neil F. See also[edit]
Ground expression Term that does not contain any variables is a ground formula, with and being constant symbols. Examples[edit] for the numbers 0 and 1, respectively, a unary function symbol for the successor function and a binary function symbol for addition. are ground terms; are ground terms; are ground terms; and are terms, but not ground terms; and are ground formulae. Formal definitions[edit] What follows is a formal definition for first-order languages. the set of constant symbols, the set of functional operators, and the set of predicate symbols. Ground term[edit] Elements of are ground terms;If is an -ary function symbol and are ground terms, then is a ground term.Every ground term can be given by a finite application of the above two rules (there are no other ground terms; in particular, predicates cannot be ground terms). Roughly speaking, the Herbrand universe is the set of all ground terms. Ground atom[edit] If is an -ary predicate symbol and are ground terms, then is a ground predicate or ground atom.
Hammack Home This book is an introduction to the standard methods of proving mathematical theorems. It has been approved by the American Institute of Mathematics' Open Textbook Initiative. Also see the Mathematical Association of America Math DL review (of the 1st edition), and the Amazon reviews. The second edition is identical to the first edition, except some mistakes have been corrected, new exercises have been added, and Chapter 13 has been extended. Order a copy from Amazon or Barnes & Noble for $13.75 or download a pdf for free here. Part I: Fundamentals Part II: How to Prove Conditional Statements Part III: More on Proof Part IV: Relations, Functions and Cardinality Thanks to readers around the world who wrote to report mistakes and typos! Instructors: Click here for my page for VCU's MATH 300, a course based on this book. I will always offer the book for free on my web page, and for the lowest possible price through on-demand publishing.
Three-valued logic In logic, a three-valued logic (also trivalent, ternary, trinary logic, or trilean,[citation needed] sometimes abbreviated 3VL) is any of several many-valued logic systems in which there are three truth values indicating true, false and some indeterminate third value. This is contrasted with the more commonly known bivalent logics (such as classical sentential or Boolean logic) which provide only for true and false. Conceptual form and basic ideas were initially created by Jan Łukasiewicz and C. I. Lewis. Representation of values[edit] As with bivalent logic, truth values in ternary logic may be represented numerically using various representations of the ternary numeral system. Inside a ternary computer, ternary values are represented by ternary signals. This article mainly illustrates a system of ternary propositional logic using the truth values {false, unknown, and true}, and extends conventional Boolean connectives to a trivalent context. Logics[edit] Kleene logic[edit] See also[edit]
The Notation in Principia Mathematica 1. Why Learn the Symbolism in Principia Mathematica? Principia Mathematica [PM] was written jointly by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell over several years, and published in three volumes, which appeared between 1910 and 1913. This entry is intended to assist the student of PM in reading the symbolic portion of the work. 2. Below the reader will find, in the order in which they are introduced in PM, the following symbols, which are briefly described. 3. An immediate obstacle to reading PM is the unfamiliar use of dots for punctuation, instead of the more common parentheses and brackets. The use of dots. 3.1 Some Basic Examples Consider the following series of extended examples, in which we examine propositions in PM and then discuss how to translate them step by step into modern notation. Example 1 ⊢:p∨p.⊃.pPp This is the second assertion of “star” 1. ⊢[p∨p.⊃.p] So the brackets “[” and “]” represent the colon in ∗1·2. ⊢(p∨p)⊃p Example 2 p.q.=. (p&q)=df[∼(∼p∨∼q)] p&q=df∼(∼p∨∼q) ⊢:∼p.∨.
The Emperor's New Mind The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds and The Laws of Physics is a 1989 book by mathematical physicist Sir Roger Penrose. Penrose argues that human consciousness is non-algorithmic, and thus is not capable of being modeled by a conventional Turing machine-type of digital computer. Penrose hypothesizes that quantum mechanics plays an essential role in the understanding of human consciousness. The collapse of the quantum wavefunction is seen as playing an important role in brain function. The majority of the book is spent reviewing, for the scientifically minded layreader, a plethora of interrelated subjects such as Newtonian physics, special and general relativity, the philosophy and limitations of mathematics, quantum physics, cosmology, and the nature of time. Penrose states that his ideas on the nature of consciousness are speculative, and his thesis is considered erroneous by experts in the fields of philosophy, computer science, and robotics.[1][2][3] See also[edit]
Grundlagen der Mathematik Two-volume work by David Hilbert and Paul Bernays Grundlagen der Mathematik (English: Foundations of Mathematics) is a two-volume work by David Hilbert and Paul Bernays. Originally published in 1934 and 1939, it presents fundamental mathematical ideas and introduced second-order arithmetic. Publication history[edit] 1934/1939 (Vol. See also[edit] Hilbert–Bernays paradox References[edit] External links[edit] Hilbert Bernays Project which aims to produce an English translation of Grundlagen der Mathematik.