Boolean algebra Boolean algebra was introduced by George Boole in his first book The Mathematical Analysis of Logic (1847), and set forth more fully in his An Investigation of the Laws of Thought (1854).[1] According to Huntington the term "Boolean algebra" was first suggested by Sheffer in 1913.[2] Boolean algebra has been fundamental in the development of digital electronics, and is provided for in all modern programming languages. It is also used in set theory and statistics.[3] History[edit] In the 1930s, while studying switching circuits, Claude Shannon observed that one could also apply the rules of Boole's algebra in this setting, and he introduced switching algebra as a way to analyze and design circuits by algebraic means in terms of logic gates. Values[edit] As with elementary algebra, the purely equational part of the theory may be developed without considering explicit values for the variables.[12] Operations[edit] Basic operations[edit] The basic operations of Boolean algebra are as follows. J.
Roger Penrose English mathematical physicist Sir Roger Penrose Kt OM FRS (born 8 August 1931) is a British mathematician, mathematical physicist, philosopher of science and Nobel Laureate in Physics.[1] He is Emeritus Rouse Ball Professor of Mathematics at the University of Oxford, an emeritus fellow of Wadham College, Oxford, and an honorary fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and University College London.[2] Penrose has made contributions to the mathematical physics of general relativity and cosmology. He has received several prizes and awards, including the 1988 Wolf Prize in Physics, which he shared with Stephen Hawking for the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems,[3] and one half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics "for the discovery that black hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of relativity".[4][5][a] Early life[edit] Research[edit] As reviewer Manjit Kumar puts it: In 1983, Penrose was invited to teach at Rice University in Houston, by the then provost Bill Gordon.
Cybernetics Cybernetics is a transdisciplinary[1] approach for exploring regulatory systems, their structures, constraints, and possibilities. Cybernetics is relevant to the study of systems, such as mechanical, physical, biological, cognitive, and social systems. Cybernetics is applicable when a system being analyzed incorporates a closed signaling loop; that is, where action by the system generates some change in its environment and that change is reflected in that system in some manner (feedback) that triggers a system change, originally referred to as a "circular causal" relationship. Concepts studied by cyberneticists (or, as some prefer, cyberneticians) include, but are not limited to: learning, cognition, adaptation, social control, emergence, communication, efficiency, efficacy, and connectivity. Norbert Wiener defined cybernetics in 1948 as "the scientific study of control and communication in the animal and the machine Definitions[edit] Other notable definitions include: Etymology[edit] W.
Gravitoelectromagnetism Gravitoelectromagnetism, abbreviated GEM, refers to a set of formal analogies between the equations for electromagnetism and relativistic gravitation; specifically: between Maxwell's field equations and an approximation, valid under certain conditions, to the Einstein field equations for general relativity. Gravitomagnetism is a widely used term referring specifically to the kinetic effects of gravity, in analogy to the magnetic effects of moving electric charge. The most common version of GEM is valid only far from isolated sources, and for slowly moving test particles. The analogy and equations differing only by some small factors were first published in 1893, before general relativity, by Oliver Heaviside as a separate theory expanding Newton's law.[1] Background[edit] ...or equivalently currentI, same field profile, and field generation due to rotation. Physical analogues of fields[2] Indirect validations of gravitomagnetic effects have been derived from analyses of relativistic jets.
Alex Faickney Osborn Alex Faickney Osborn (May 24, 1888 – May 5, 1966) was an advertising executive and the author of the creativity technique named brainstorming. Founding of BBDO[edit] In 1919, Osborn joined with Bruce Fairchild Barton and Roy Sarles Durstine to form the BDO advertising agency. Osborn acted as manager of BDO's Buffalo branch. Creativity theorist[edit] Osborn became increasingly active as an author, and published several books on creative thinking. In 1954, Osborn set up the Creative Education Foundation, sustained by the royalties earned from his books. Notable advertising work[edit] Books[edit] A Short Course in Advertising, London, New York: Sir I. Osborn also contributed frequently to trade publications such as Printer's Ink. Family life[edit] On September 15, 1916, he married Helen Coatsworth, the daughter of a wealthy Buffalo lawyer. Sources[edit] Bruce Fairchild Barton, Roy Sarles Durstine, and Alex Faickney Osborn, Joan Vidal, João Lins. References[edit] 3.
Geodesy The science of the geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field of Earth Definition[edit] The word "geodesy" comes from the Ancient Greek word γεωδαισία geodaisia (literally, "division of Earth"). It is primarily concerned with positioning within the temporally varying gravity field. Geodesy in the German-speaking world is divided into "higher geodesy" ("Erdmessung" or "höhere Geodäsie"), which is concerned with measuring Earth on the global scale, and "practical geodesy" or "engineering geodesy" ("Ingenieurgeodäsie"), which is concerned with measuring specific parts or regions of Earth, and which includes surveying. To a large extent, the shape of Earth is the result of rotation, which causes its equatorial bulge, and the competition of geological processes such as the collision of plates and of volcanism, resisted by Earth's gravity field. History[edit] Geoid and reference ellipsoid[edit] Coordinate systems in space[edit] Coordinate systems in the plane[edit] Heights[edit]
Arya (Buddhism) The term is used in the following contexts: The Four Noble Truths are called the catvāry ārya satyāni (Sanskrit) or cattāri ariya saccāni (Pali).The Noble Eightfold Path is called the ārya mārga (Sanskrit, also āryāṣṭāṅgikamārga) or ariya magga (Pāli).Buddha's Dharma and Vinaya are the ariyassa dhammavinayo.In Buddhist texts, the āryas are those who have the Buddhist śīla (Pāli sīla, meaning "virtue") and follow the Buddhist path.Buddhists who have attained one of the four levels of awakening (stream-entry, once-returner, non-returner, arahant) are themselves called ariya puggalas (Arya persons). In the context of the four noble truths, contemporary scholars explain the meaning of ārya as follows: The word "noble," or ariya, is used by the Buddha to designate a particular type of person, the type of person which it is the aim of his teaching to create. In the discourses the Buddha classifies human beings into two broad categories.
Hendrik Lorentz Dutch physicist Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (/ˈlɒrənts/; 18 July 1853 – 4 February 1928) was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Pieter Zeeman for the discovery and theoretical explanation of the Zeeman effect. He also derived the transformation equations underpinning Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity. According to the biography published by the Nobel Foundation, "It may well be said that Lorentz was regarded by all theoretical physicists as the world's leading spirit, who completed what was left unfinished by his predecessors and prepared the ground for the fruitful reception of the new ideas based on the quantum theory Biography[edit] Early life[edit] Hendrik Lorentz was born in Arnhem, Gelderland, Netherlands, the son of Gerrit Frederik Lorentz (1822–1893), a well-off horticulturist, and Geertruida van Ginkel (1826–1861). Career[edit] Professor in Leiden[edit] Electrodynamics and relativity[edit] Lorentz and special relativity[edit] Assessments[edit] Dr.
Dharma Key concept in Indian philosophy and Eastern religions, with multiple meanings Dharma (;[7] Sanskrit: dharma, pronounced [dʱɐrmɐ] ( listen); Pali: dhamma) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others.[8] Although there is no direct single-word translation for dharma in European languages,[9] it is commonly translated as "righteousness", "merit" or "religious and moral duties" governing individual conduct.[11] In Hinduism, dharma is one of the four components of the Puruṣārtha, the aims of life, and signifies behaviours that are considered to be in accord with Ṛta, the order that makes life and universe possible.[12][note 1] It includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and "right way of living".[13] In Buddhism, dharma means "cosmic law and order",[12][14] as expressed by the teachings of the Buddha.[12][14] In Buddhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also the term for "phenomena".[15][note 2] Etymology[edit] In Pali
Albert Einstein German-born scientist (1879–1955) Albert Einstein ( EYEN-styne;[6] German: [ˈalbɛʁt ˈʔaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist,[7] widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time. Einstein is best known for developing the theory of relativity, but he also made important contributions to the development of the theory of quantum mechanics. Relativity and quantum mechanics are the two pillars of modern physics.[3][8] His mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, which arises from relativity theory, has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation".[9] His work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science.[10][11] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect",[12] a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. Life and career Early life and education Patent office Death