Independence Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over the territory. The opposite of independence is the status of a dependent territory. Definition of independence[edit] Distinction between independence and autonomy[edit] Autonomy refers to a kind of independence which has been granted by an overseeing authority that itself still retains ultimate authority over that territory (see Devolution). Declarations of independence[edit] Historical overview[edit] Historically, there have been three major periods of declaring independence: Continents[edit] Notes[edit] See also[edit] References[edit]
Self-governance Self-governance is an abstract concept that applies to several scales of organization. It may refer to personal conduct or family units but more commonly refers to larger scale activities, i.e., professions, industry bodies, religions and political units (usually referred to as Local Government), up to and including autonomous regions and/or others within nation-states who enjoy some sovereign rights. It falls within the larger context of governance and principles such as consent of the governed, and may involve non-profit organizations and corporate governance. It can be used to describe a people or group being able to exercise all of the necessary functions of power without intervention from any authority which they cannot themselves alter. Generally when self-governance of nation-states is discussed, it is called national sovereignty – a concept important in international law. A means of self-governance usually comprises at least the following: References[edit] Bird, C. (2000).
Individual That which exists as a distinct figure or entity An individual is that which exists as a distinct entity. Individuality (or self-hood) is the state or quality of living as an individual; particularly (in the case of humans) of as a person unique from other people and possessing one's own needs or goals, rights and responsibilities. Etymology[edit] From the 15th century and earlier (and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics) individual meant "indivisible", typically describing any numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning "a person". Biology[edit] Law[edit] An individual person is accountable for their actions/decisions/instructions, subject to prosecution in both national and international law, from the time that they have reached age of majority, often though not always more or less coinciding with the granting of voting rights, responsibility for paying tax, military duties, and the individual right to bear arms (protected only under certain constitutions).
Existentialism Existentialism is a term applied to the work of certain late 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences,[1][2][3] shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual.[4] In existentialism, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential attitude", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world.[5] Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.[6][7] Definitional issues and background[edit] There has never been general agreement on the definition of existentialism. The term is often seen as an historical convenience as it was first applied to many philosophers in hindsight, long after they had died. Concepts[edit] The Absurd[edit]
Sovereignty Supreme authority within a territory, as well as external autonomy from other states Etymology[edit] The term arises from the unattested Vulgar Latin's *superanus, (itself derived form of Latin super – "over") meaning "chief", "ruler".[5] Its spelling, which varied from the word's first appearance in English in the fourteenth century, was influenced by the English reign.[6][7] Concepts[edit] The concept of sovereignty has multiple conflicting components, varying definitions, and diverse and inconsistent applications throughout history.[8][9][10][11] The current notion of state sovereignty contains four aspects consisting of territory, population, authority and recognition.[10] According to Stephen D. Sovereignty is a hypothetical trade, in which two potentially (or really) conflicting sides, respecting de facto realities of power, exchange such recognitions as their least costly strategy.[12] History[edit] Classical[edit] The Roman jurist Ulpian observed that:[13] Medieval[edit] Internal[edit]
Authenticity Authenticity or authentic may refer to: Authentication, the act of confirming the truth of an attribute Arts and entertainment[edit] Authenticity in art, ways in which a work of art or an artistic performance may be considered authentic Music[edit] Authentic performance, an approach to the performance of classical musicAuthentic Records, a record labelAuthentic mode, a set of pitch organizations used in Gregorian chant Albums[edit] Other uses[edit] See also[edit]
Truth Truth is most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality,[1] or fidelity to an original or to a standard or ideal.[1] The commonly understood opposite of truth is falsehood, which, correspondingly, can also take on a logical, factual, or ethical meaning. The concept of truth is discussed and debated in several contexts, including philosophy and religion. Many human activities depend upon the concept, where its nature as a concept is assumed rather than being a subject of discussion; these include most (but not all) of the sciences, law, and everyday life. Definition and etymology[edit] An angel carrying the banner of "Truth", Roslin, Midlothian Thus, 'truth' involves both the quality of "faithfulness, fidelity, loyalty, sincerity, veracity",[6] and that of "agreement with fact or reality", in Anglo-Saxon expressed by sōþ (Modern English sooth). All Germanic languages besides English have introduced a terminological distinction between truth "fidelity" and truth "factuality".
Society Connected group of individuals A society () is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members. Human social structures are complex and highly cooperative, featuring the specialization of labor via social roles. Societies vary based on level of technology and type of economic activity. Etymology and usage [edit] The term "society" often refers to a large group of people in an ordered community, in a country or several similar countries, or the 'state of being with other people', e.g. Some biologists, including entomologist E.O. Symbolic interactionism Hunting and gathering
Institution Structure or mechanism of social order An institution is a humanly devised structure of rules and norms that shape and constrain social behavior.[1][2][3][4] All definitions of institutions generally entail that there is a level of persistence and continuity.[5] Laws, rules, social conventions and norms are all examples of institutions.[6] Institutions vary in their level of formality and informality.[7][8] Institutions are a principal object of study in social sciences such as political science, anthropology, economics, and sociology (the latter described by Émile Durkheim as the "science of institutions, their genesis and their functioning").[9] Primary or meta-institutions are institutions such as the family or money that are broad enough to encompass sets of related institutions. Institutions are also a central concern for law, the formal mechanism for political rule-making and enforcement. Other social scientists have examined the concept of institutional lock-in. [edit]
Totalitarianism Extreme form of authoritarianism and a theoretical concept The totalitarian government uses ideology to control most aspects of human life, such as the political economy of the country, the system of education, the arts, sciences, and private morality of its citizens. [4] In the exercise of socio-political power, the difference between a totalitarian regime of government and an authoritarian regime of government is one of degree; whereas totalitarianism features a charismatic dictator and a fixed worldview, authoritarianism only features a dictator who holds power for the sake of holding power. The authoritarian dictator is supported, either jointly or individually, by a military junta and by the socio-economic elites who are the ruling class of the country.[5] Contemporary background [edit] Degree of control Historical background American historian William Rubinstein wrote that: "Totalitarians" and "Revisionists" Leninism and the October Revolution Revisionists on Stalinism True belief
Collectivism Collectivism can be divided into horizontal (or egalitarian) collectivism and vertical (or hierarchical) collectivism. Horizontal collectivism stresses collective decision-making among equal individuals, and is thus usually based on decentralization and egalitarianism. Vertical collectivism is based on hierarchical structures of power and on moral and cultural conformity, and is therefore based on centralization and hierarchy. A cooperative enterprise would be an example of horizontal collectivism, whereas a military hierarchy would be an example of vertical collectivism.[1] Typology[edit] Collectivism has been used to refer to a diverse range of political and economic positions, including nationalism, direct democracy, representative democracy and monarchy. equality does not mean an equal amount but equal opportunity. . . Horizontal collectivists tend to favour democratic decision-making, while vertical collectivists believe in a strict chain of command. Culture and politics[edit]
Propositional attitude Concept in epistemology A propositional attitude is a mental state held by an agent or organism toward a proposition. In philosophy, propositional attitudes can be considered to be neurally-realized causally efficacious content-bearing internal states (personal principles/values).[1] Linguistically, propositional attitudes are denoted by a verb (e.g. believed) governing an embedded "that" clause, for example, 'Sally believed that she had won'. Propositional attitudes are often assumed to be the fundamental units of thought and their contents, being propositions, are true or false from the perspective of the person. Propositional attitudes have directions of fit: some are meant to reflect the world, others to influence it. One topic of central concern is the relation between the modalities of assertion and belief, perhaps with intention thrown in for good measure. Indiscernibility of identicals [edit] What sort of name shall we give to verbs like 'believe' and 'wish' and so forth?
Corporation Legal entity incorporated through a legislative or registration process Registered corporations have legal personality recognized by local authorities and their shares are owned by shareholders[3][4] whose liability is generally limited to their investment. One of the attractive early advantages business corporations offered to their investors, compared to earlier business entities like sole proprietorships and joint partnerships, was limited liability. Limited liability means that a passive shareholder in a corporation will not be personally liable either for contractually agreed obligations of the corporation, or for torts (involuntary harms) committed by the corporation against a third party. Where local law distinguishes corporations by their ability to issue stock, corporations allowed to do so are referred to as stock corporations; one type of investment in the corporation is through stock, and owners of stock are referred to as stockholders or shareholders. [edit]