Content analysis. Content analysis is "a wide and heterogeneous set of manual or computer-assisted techniques for contextualized interpretations of documents produced by communication processes in the strict sense of that phrase (any kind of text, written, iconic, multimedia, etc.) or signification processes (traces and artifacts), having as ultimate goal the production of valid and trustworthy inferences. "[1] On the other side, Content Analysis can also study traces (documents from past times) and artifacts (non-linguistic documents), which come from communication processes in a broad sense of that phrase - commonly referred to as "signification" in Semiotics (in the absence of an intentional sender, semiosis is developed by abduction).[1] Over the years, content analysis has been applied to a variety of scopes.
In recent times, particularly with the advent of mass communication, content analysis has known an increasing use to deeply analyse and understand media content and media logic. Description[edit] Hidden profiles. History[edit] In 1981 two researchers, Garold Stasser and William Titus, set out to challenge strongly-held beliefs about group decision making. The researchers attempted to use a number of formal models to identify what would happen when people are not fully informed.[1]:304 One of these was the persuasive argument theory (PAT).
The theory, in this case, would state that polarization of judgments is due to culturally pooled arguments. This will bolster popularly held beliefs and arguments, yet not take into account unshared information. Causes[edit] Hidden profiles occur when some information is shared among group members and other pieces of information remain unshared. One issue with hidden profiles is the time dedicated to discussion. See also[edit] Further reading[edit] Stasser, G. (1988). References[edit] ^ Jump up to: a b c Stasser, G.; Titus, W. (2003). Social comparison theory. Social comparison theory was initially proposed by social psychologist Leon Festinger in 1954.[1] Social comparison theory is centered on the belief that there is a drive within individuals to gain accurate self-evaluations.
The theory explains how individuals evaluate their own opinions and abilities by comparing themselves to others in order to reduce uncertainty in these domains, and learn how to define the self. Following the initial theory, research began to focus on social comparison as a way of self-enhancement,[2][3] introducing the concepts of downward and upward comparisons and expanding the motivations of social comparisons.[4] Initial framework[edit] In the initial theory, Festinger provided nine main hypotheses. Theoretical advances[edit] Since its inception, the initial framework has undergone several advances. Self-evaluation and self-enhancement[edit] Upward and downward social comparisons[edit] Competitiveness[edit] Social status[edit] Proximity to a standard[edit]
Group polarization. Overview[edit] Group polarization is the phenomenon that when placed in group situations, people will make decisions and form opinions to more of an extreme than when they are in individual situations. The phenomenon has shown that after participating in a discussion group, members tend to advocate more extreme positions and call for riskier courses of action than individuals who did not participate in any such discussion.[3] This phenomenon was originally coined risky shift but was found to apply to more than risk, so the replacement term choice shift has been suggested.[4] The importance of group polarization is significant as it helps explain group behavior in a variety of real-life situations.
Examples of these situations include public policy, terrorism, college life, and violence. For instance, group polarization can largely be seen at political conventions which are broadcast nation wide before a large election. History and origins[edit] “Mr. Major theoretical approaches[edit] Conformity. Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms.[1] Norms are implicit, unsaid rules, shared by a group of individuals, that guide their interactions with others. This tendency to conform occurs in small groups and/or society as a whole, and may result from subtle unconscious influences, or direct and overt social pressure. Conformity can occur in the presence of others, or when an individual is alone. For example, people tend to follow social norms when eating or watching television, even when alone. People often conform from a desire for security within a group—typically a group of a similar age, culture, religion, or educational status.
Although peer pressure may manifest negatively, conformity can have good or bad effects depending on the situation. As conformity is a group phenomenon, factors such as group size, unanimity, cohesion, status, prior commitment, and public opinion help determine the level of conformity an individual displays. Age[edit] Social influence. Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard described two psychological needs that lead humans to conform to the expectations of others. These include our need to be right (informational social influence), and our need to be liked (normative social influence).[3] Informational influence (or social proof) is an influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality. Informational influence comes into play when people are uncertain, either because stimuli are intrinsically ambiguous or because there is social disagreement.
Normative influence is an influence to conform to the positive expectations of others. In terms of Kelman's typology, normative influence leads to public compliance, whereas informational influence leads to private acceptance. Types[edit] Social Influence is a broad term that relates to many different phenomena. Kelman's varieties[edit] 1) Compliance[edit] 2) Identification[edit] 3) Internalization[edit] Conformity[edit] Minority influence[edit] Reactance[edit] Group behaviour. Group behaviour (or group behavior) in sociology refers to the situations where people interact in large or small groups. The field of group dynamics deals with small groups that may reach consensus and act in a coordinated way. Groups of a large number of people in a given area may act simultaneously to achieve a goal that differs from what individuals would do acting alone (herd behaviour).
A large group (a crowd or mob) is likely to show examples of group behaviour when people gathered in a given place and time act in a similar way—for example, joining a protest or march, participating in a fight or acting patriotically. Special forms of large group behaviour are: Crowd "hysteria"Spectators - when a group of people gathered together on purpose to participate in an event like theatre play, cinema movie, football match, a concert, etc.Public - exception to the rule that the group must occupy the same physical place. Why people join groups[edit] Defining characteristics[edit] Communication in small groups. Group communication[edit] The first important research study of small group communication was performed in front of a live studio audience in Hollywood California by social psychologist Robert Bales and published in a series of books and articles in the early and mid 1950s .[5][6][7] This research entailed the content analysis of discussions within groups making decisions about "human relations" problems (i.e., vignettes about relationship difficulties within families or organizations).
Bales made a series of important discoveries. First, group discussion tends to shift back and forth relatively quickly between the discussion of the group task and discussion relevant to the relationship among the members. Linear phase model[edit] The most influential of these discoveries has been the latter; the linear phase model.
Idea development[edit] Social influence in groups[edit] Work relevant to social influence in groups has a long history. Conflict resolution[edit] Group decisions[edit]