Multi-level governance. Multi-level (or multilevel) governance is an approach in political science and public administration theory that originated from studies on European integration. Political scientists Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks developed the concept of multi-level governance in the early 1990s and have continuously been contributing to the research program in a series of articles (see Bibliography).[1] Their theory resulted from the study of the new structures that were put in place by the EU (Maastricht Treaty) in 1992.
Multi-level governance gives expression to the idea that there are many interacting authority structures at work in the emergent global political economy. It "illuminates the intimate entanglement between the domestic and international levels of authority". Origins and significance of the concept of multi-level governance[edit] Application of the concept[edit] Multi-level governance and the European Union[edit] The theory of Multi-level governance belongs to the second phase. Global commons. Planetary boundaries. Planetary boundaries is the central concept in an Earth system framework proposed by a group of Earth system and environmental scientists led by Johan Rockström from the Stockholm Resilience Centre and Will Steffen from the Australian National University.
In 2009, the group proposed a framework of “planetary boundaries” designed to define a “safe operating space for humanity” for the international community, including governments at all levels, international organizations, civil society, the scientific community and the private sector, as a precondition for sustainable development. This framework is based on scientific research that indicates that since the Industrial Revolution, human actions have gradually become the main driver of global environmental change. Background[edit] The idea of planetary boundaries or limits[edit] The planet Earth is a finite system, which means it has limits Of a different kind is the approach made by James Lovelock.
From Holocene to Anthropocene[edit] Environmental resources management. Environmental resource management is the management of the interaction and impact of human societies on the environment. It is not, as the phrase might suggest, the management of the environment itself. Environmental resources management aims to ensure that ecosystem services are protected and maintained for future human generations, and also maintain ecosystem integrity through considering ethical, economic, and scientific (ecological) variables.[1] Environmental resource management tries to identify factors affected by conflicts that rise between meeting needs and protecting resources. It is thus linked to environmental protection and sustainability. Significance[edit] Scope[edit] Environmental resource management can be viewed from a variety of perspectives.
Aspects[edit] Ethical[edit] Anthropocentrism[edit] Ecocentrism[edit] Economic[edit] A water harvesting system collects rainwater from the Rock of Gibraltar into pipes that lead to tanks excavated inside the rock. Ecological[edit] Ecosystem services. Humankind benefits in a multitude of ways from ecosystems. Collectively, these benefits are known as ecosystem services. Ecosystem services are regularly involved in the provisioning of clean drinking water and the decomposition of wastes.
While scientists and environmentalists have discussed ecosystem services implicitly for decades, the ecosystem services concept itself was popularized by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) in the early 2000s.[1] This grouped ecosystem services into four broad categories: provisioning, such as the production of food and water; regulating, such as the control of climate and disease; supporting, such as nutrient cycles and crop pollination; and cultural, such as spiritual and recreational benefits.
To help inform decision-makers, many ecosystem services are being assigned economic values. §History[edit] In 1956, Paul Sears [7] drew attention to the critical role of the ecosystem in processing wastes and recycling nutrients. §Definition[edit] Cultural heritage. Cultural heritage is the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society that are inherited from past generations, maintained in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future generations. Cultural heritage includes tangible culture (such as buildings, monuments, landscapes, books, works of art, and artifacts), intangible culture (such as folklore, traditions, language, and knowledge), and natural heritage (including culturally significant landscapes, and biodiversity).
The ethics and rationale of cultural preservation[edit] Objects are a part of the study of human history because they provide a concrete basis for ideas, and can validate them. Their preservation demonstrates a recognition of the necessity of the past and of the things that tell its story.[1] In The Past is a Foreign Country, David Lowenthal observes that preserved objects also validate memories. Types of heritage[edit] Classical Ruins by Hubert Robert, 1798.
Cultural property[edit] Canada. Environmental protection. Academic institutions now offer courses, such as environmental studies, environmental management and environmental engineering, that teach the history and methods of environment protection. Protection of the environment is needed due to various human activities. Waste production, air pollution, and loss of biodiversity (resulting from the introduction of invasive species and species extinction) are some of the issues related to environmental protection. Environmental protection is influenced by three interwoven factors: environmental legislation, ethics and education. Each of these factors plays its part in influencing national-level environmental decisions and personal-level environmental values and behaviors. For environmental protection to become a reality, it is important for societies to develop each of these areas that, together, will inform and drive environmental decisions.[1] Approaches to environmental protection[edit] Voluntary environmental agreements[edit] Government[edit]
Biodiversity. Coral reefs are amongst the most diverse ecosystems on earth. Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life.[1] This can refer to genetic variation, species variation, or ecosystem variation[1] within an area, biome, or planet. Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be highest near the equator,[2] which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity.[3] Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest and in mid-latitudinal band in all oceans.[4] Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots,[5] and has been increasing through time[6][7] but will be likely to slow in the future.[8] Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions.[9][10][11] One estimate is that <1%–3% of the species that have existed on Earth are extant.[12] The United Nations designated 2011–2020 as the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity.
Etymology[edit] Definitions[edit] Distribution[edit] Hotspots[edit] Genetic diversity. Genetic diversity, the level of biodiversity, refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to vary. Genetic diversity serves as a way for populations to adapt to changing environments. With more variation, it is more likely that some individuals in a population will possess variations of alleles that are suited for the environment.
Those individuals are more likely to survive to produce offspring bearing that allele. The population will continue for more generations because of the success of these individuals.[1] The academic field of population genetics includes several hypotheses and theories regarding genetic diversity. The neutral theory of evolution proposes that diversity is the result of the accumulation of neutral substitutions. Importance of genetic diversity[edit] The interdependence between genetic and species diversity is delicate. Conservation. Conservation may refer to: Main usage: Other usage: Subtopics[edit] Conservation of biodiversity, environment, and natural resources[edit] Energy conservation, management of energy resourcesHabitat conservation, land management practices to protect, manage, and restore habitatMarine conservation, protection and management of ocean and sea ecosystemsSoil conservation, management of soils to prevent erosion, depletion, and contaminationWater conservation, management of fresh water as a sustainable resourceWetland conservation, management to protect and restore wetlandsWildlife conservation, protection of endangered species and their habitat Wildlife management, management to conserve wild species and their habitats Conservation of cultural heritage[edit] Physical laws of conservation[edit] See also[edit] Characteristics or traits subject to conservation[edit] Economics and Law[edit] Land designated for conservation[edit] Organizations[edit] Related topics[edit]
Preservation. Preservation may refer to: In safety and technology: In mathematics and computer science: Type preservation.