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Exploratory engineering

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Nanotechnology. Nanotechnology ("nanotech") is the manipulation of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale.

Nanotechnology

The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology[1][2] referred to the particular technological goal of precisely manipulating atoms and molecules for fabrication of macroscale products, also now referred to as molecular nanotechnology. A more generalized description of nanotechnology was subsequently established by the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which defines nanotechnology as the manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers.

This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum-realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special properties of matter that occur below the given size threshold.

Technomimetics. A Molecular Gearing System.[1] Technomimetics are molecular systems that can mimic man-made devices. The term was first introduced in 1997.[1] The current set of technomimetic molecules[2] includes motors,[3] rotors,[4] gears,[5] gyroscopes,[6] tweezers,[7] and other molecular devices. Nano brain. A nano brain[1] is a conceptual device with massively parallel computational abilities, following the information processing principles of the human brain.

Nano brain

This machine assembly would serve as an intelligent decision making unit for nanorobots[clarification needed]. One essential feature of a nano brain is that it would acquire all sensory inputs from the external environment, and in processing that information, generate distinct instructions for every single execution unit connected to the nano brain simultaneously.[2] Thus, the computing machine will communicate with the external world in a similar fashion to our central nervous system. A 16 bit parallel processing nano brain made by Duroquinone molecules.

Dotted lines represent hydrogen bonds.1. Megascale engineering. Megascale engineering (or macro-engineering)[1] is a form of exploratory engineering concerned with the construction of structures on an enormous scale. Typically these structures are at least 1,000 kilometers in length—in other words, at least 1 megameter, hence the name. Such large-scale structures are termed megastructures.

In addition to large-scale structures, megascale engineering is also defined as including the transformation of entire planets into a human-habitable environment, a process known as terraforming or planetary engineering. This might also include transformation of the surface conditions, changes in the planetary orbit, and structures in orbit intended to modify the energy balance.

Astroengineering. Applications[edit] In a 2005 paper, Luc Arnold proposed a means of detecting smaller, though still megascale, artifacts from their distinctive light curve signature.[1] Some applications are becoming more relevant to our time period as advances in technology progress. Lunar space elevator. Diagram showing equatorial and polar Lunar space elevators running to L1. An L2 elevator would mirror this arrangement on the Lunar far side, and cargo dropped from its end would be flung outward into the solar system. A lunar space elevator is a proposed transportation system for moving a mechanical climbing vehicle up and down a ribbon-shaped, tethered cable, in between the surface of the Moon "at the bottom," and a docking port, suspended tens of thousands of kilometers above, in space, at the top. It is similar in concept to the better known Earth-based space elevator idea, but since the Moon's mass and rotational speed are much lower than the Earth's, the engineering requirements for constructing a lunar elevator system can be met using currently available materials and technology.

A lunar elevator could significantly reduce the costs and improve reliability of soft-landing equipment on the lunar surface. Orbital ring. An orbital ring is a concept for a space elevator that consists of a ring in low Earth orbit that rotates at above orbital speed, that has fixed tethers hanging down to the ground. The structure is intended to be used for very high speed transportation and space launch. Kardashev scale. The Kardashev scale is a method of measuring a civilization's level of technological advancement, based on the amount of energy a civilization is able to utilize.

Kardashev scale

The scale has three designated categories called Type I, II, and III. A Type I civilization uses all available resources on its home planet, Type II harnesses all the energy of its star, and Type III of its galaxy. The scale is only hypothetical, but it puts energy consumption in a cosmic perspective. It was first proposed in 1964 by the Russian astronomer Nikolai Kardashev (Kardashyov). Energy development. Contemporary industrial societies use primary and secondary energy sources for transportation and the production of many manufactured goods.

Also, large industrial populations have various generation and delivery services for energy distribution and end-user utilization. [note 4] This energy is used by people who can afford the cost to live under various climatic conditions through the use of heating, ventilation, and/or air conditioning. Fusion power. The Sun is a natural fusion reactor.

Fusion power

Fusion power is the energy generated by nuclear fusion processes. In fusion reactions, two light atomic nuclei fuse to form a heavier nucleus (in contrast with fission power). Antimatter. In particle physics, antimatter is material composed of antiparticles, which have the same mass as particles of ordinary matter but have opposite charge and other particle properties such as lepton and baryon number.

Antimatter

Encounters between particles and antiparticles lead to the annihilation of both, giving rise to varying proportions of high-energy photons (gamma rays), neutrinos, and lower-mass particle–antiparticle pairs. Setting aside the mass of any product neutrinos, which represent released energy which generally continues to be unavailable, the end result of annihilation is a release of energy available to do work, proportional to the total matter and antimatter mass, in accord with the mass-energy equivalence equation, E=mc2.[1] Antiparticles bind with each other to form antimatter just as ordinary particles bind to form normal matter. For example, a positron (the antiparticle of the electron) and an antiproton can form an antihydrogen atom. Dyson sphere. Dyson sphere is a hypothetical megastructure that completely encompasses a star and hence captures most or all of its power output.

Dyson sphere

It was first described by Freeman Dyson. Star lifting. Star lifting is any of several hypothetical processes by which a highly advanced civilization (at least Kardashev-II) could remove a substantial portion of a star's matter in a controlled manner for other uses. The term appears to have been coined by David Criswell. Stars have deep gravity wells, so the energy required for such operations is large. For example, lifting solar material from the surface of the Sun to infinity requires 2.1 × 1011 J/kg. This energy could be supplied by the star itself, collected by a Dyson sphere; using only 10% of the Sun's total power output would allow 5.9 × 1021 kilograms of matter to be lifted per year (0.0000003% of the Sun's total mass, or 8% of the Moon's mass). Methods for lifting material[edit] Thermal-driven outflow[edit] A mechanism for "harvesting" solar wind (RC = ring current, MN = magnetic nozzles, J = plasma jet).

"Huff-n-Puff"[edit] Planetary engineering. Planetary engineering is the application of technology for the purpose of influencing the global properties of a planet.[1] The goal of this theoretical task is usually to make other worlds habitable for life. Perhaps the best-known type of planetary engineering is terraforming, by which a planet's surface conditions are altered to be more like those of Earth. Other types of planetary engineering include ecopoiesis, the introduction of an ecology to a lifeless environment.

Planetary engineering is largely the realm of science fiction at present, although recent climate change on Earth suggests that humans can cause change on a global scale. Terraforming. An artist's conception shows a terraformed Mars in four stages of development.

Terraforming

Terraforming (literally, "Earth-shaping") of a planet, moon, or other body is the theoretical process of deliberately modifying its atmosphere, temperature, surface topography or ecology to be similar to the biosphere of Earth to make it habitable by Earth-like life. The term "terraforming" is sometimes used more generally as a synonym for planetary engineering, although some consider this more general usage an error. [citation needed] The concept of terraforming developed from both science fiction and actual science. Protoscience. Fringe science. There are differing definitions of fringe science.

Fringe science

By one definition (see below) it is valid, but not mainstream, science; by another broader definition it is generally viewed in a negative way as being non-scientific. Pseudoscience. The demarcation problem between science and pseudoscience has ethical political implications, as well as philosophical and scientific issues.[6] Differentiating science from pseudoscience has practical implications in the case of health care, expert testimony, environmental policies, and science education.[7] Distinguishing scientific facts and theories from pseudoscientific beliefs such as those found in astrology, alchemy, medical quackery, and occult beliefs combined with scientific concepts, is part of science education and scientific literacy.[8]

Pseudoscience

Geoengineering. Climate engineering, also referred to as geoengineering, is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth’s climatic system with the aim of reducing global warming.[1][2][3] Climate engineering has two categories of technologies- carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management. Solar radiation management. Removing trees from snowy landscapes can help reflect more sunlight into space[1] at latitudes that have meaningful incoming solar energy in the winter. Space sunshade. Carbon dioxide removal. Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[1] Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage, biochar, direct air capture, ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering.[1] CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources, such as power stations.

Carbon dioxide removal

The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but cannot reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere. Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage. Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) is a greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining biomass use with geologic carbon capture and storage.[1] The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops, which extract carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere as they grow, the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants, and the application of carbon capture and storage.[2] BECCS is a form of carbon dioxide removal, along with technologies such as biochar, carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial.[3] According to a recent Biorecro report, there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating, divided between three different facilities (as of January 2012).[2][4][5][6][7]

Ocean nourishment. A visualization of bloom populations in the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans from March 2003 to October 2006. The blue areas are nutrient deficient. Green to yellow show blooms fed by dust blown from nearby landmasses.[1] Genetic engineering. Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using biotechnology. New DNA may be inserted in the host genome by first isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using molecular cloning methods to generate a DNA sequence, or by synthesizing the DNA, and then inserting this construct into the host organism. Gene targeting. Molecular cloning.