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Philosophie

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Animism. Religious belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence Although each culture has its own mythologies and rituals, animism is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples' "spiritual" or "supernatural" perspectives. The animistic perspective is so widely held and inherent to most indigenous peoples, that they often do not even have a word in their languages that corresponds to "animism" (or even "religion");[10] the term is an anthropological construct.

Largely due to such ethnolinguistic and cultural discrepancies, opinions differ on whether animism refers to an ancestral mode of experience common to indigenous peoples around the world, or to a full-fledged religion in its own right. The currently accepted definition of animism was only developed in the late 19th century (1871) by Sir Edward Tylor. Etymology[edit] The first known usage in English appeared in 1819.[16] "Old animism” definitions[edit] Religion[edit]

Sun Tzu. Sun Tzu's historicity is uncertain. Sima Qian and other traditional historians placed him as a minister to King Helü of Wu and dated his lifetime to 544–496 BC. Modern scholars accepting his historicity nonetheless place the existing text of The Art of War in the later Warring States period based upon its style of composition and its descriptions of warfare.[2] Traditional accounts state that the general's descendant Sun Bin also wrote a treatise on military tactics, also titled The Art of War.

Since both Sun Wu and Sun Bin were referred to as Sun Tzu in classical Chinese texts, some historians believed them identical prior to the rediscovery of Sun Bin's treatise in 1972. Sun Tzu's work has been praised and employed throughout East Asia since its composition. Life[edit] The Art of War[edit] Main article: The Art of War A bamboo version of The Art of War The Art of War (Chinese: trad. Historicity[edit] Legacy[edit] Sun Tzu's Art of War has influenced many notable figures. Notes[edit] Category:Philosophy of religion.

Consciousness. Sentience or awareness of internal and external existence Inter-disciplinary perspectives[edit] Consciousness has also become a significant topic of interdisciplinary research in cognitive science, involving fields such as psychology, linguistics, anthropology,[6] neuropsychology and neuroscience. The primary focus is on understanding what it means biologically and psychologically for information to be present in consciousness—that is, on determining the neural and psychological correlates of consciousness. Etymology[edit] In the late 20th century, philosophers like Hamlyn, Rorty, and Wilkes have disagreed with Kahn, Hardie and Modrak as to whether Aristotle even had a concept of consciousness. Aristotle does not use any single word or terminology to name the phenomenon; it is used only much later, especially by John Locke. Caston contends that for Aristotle, perceptual awareness was somewhat the same as what modern philosophers call consciousness.[9] The problem of definition[edit]

Quantum mind. Fringe hypothesis The quantum mind or quantum consciousness is a group of hypotheses proposing that local physical laws and interactions from classical mechanics or connections between neurons alone cannot explain consciousness,[1] positing instead that quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as entanglement and superposition that cause nonlocalized quantum effects, interacting in smaller features of the brain than cells, may play an important part in the brain's function and could explain critical aspects of consciousness. These scientific hypotheses are as yet unvalidated, and they can overlap with quantum mysticism.

History[edit] Eugene Wigner developed the idea that quantum mechanics has something to do with the workings of the mind.[2] He proposed that the wave function collapses due to its interaction with consciousness. Freeman Dyson argued that "mind, as manifested by the capacity to make choices, is to some extent inherent in every electron".[3] Approaches[edit] Bohm[edit] Pribram[edit] Orchestrated objective reduction. Theory of a quantum origin of consciousness Orchestrated objective reduction (Orch OR) is a theory which postulates that consciousness originates at the quantum level inside neurons, rather than the conventional view that it is a product of connections between neurons. The mechanism is held to be a quantum process called objective reduction that is orchestrated by cellular structures called microtubules. It is proposed that the theory may answer the hard problem of consciousness and provide a mechanism for free will.[1] The hypothesis was first put forward in the early 1990s by Nobel laureate for physics, Roger Penrose, and anaesthesiologist and psychologist Stuart Hameroff.

The hypothesis combines approaches from molecular biology, neuroscience, pharmacology, philosophy, quantum information theory, and quantum gravity.[2][3] Background[edit] If correct, the Penrose–Lucas argument leaves the question of the physical basis of non-computable behaviour open. Where: Orch OR[edit] See also[edit] Category:Philosophy of life. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Philosophy portal The philosophy of life is philosophy in the informal sense, as a way of life whose focus is resolving the existential questions about the human condition.

Subcategories This category has the following 9 subcategories, out of 9 total. Pages in category "Philosophy of life" The following 88 pages are in this category, out of 88 total. Scientific skepticism. Modern social movement based on the idea of scientific skepticism Scientific skepticism or rational skepticism (also spelled scepticism), sometimes referred to as skeptical inquiry,[1] is a position in which one questions the veracity of claims lacking empirical evidence. In practice, the term most commonly references the examination of claims and theories that appear to be beyond mainstream science, rather than the routine discussions and challenges among scientists. Scientific skepticism differs from philosophical skepticism, which questions humans' ability to claim any knowledge about the nature of the world and how they perceive it, and the similar but distinct methodological skepticism, which is a systematic process of being skeptical about (or doubting) the truth of one's beliefs.[2] The skeptical movement (British spelling: sceptical movement) is a modern social movement based on the idea of scientific skepticism.

Overview[edit] Skeptical movement[edit] Pseudoskepticism[edit] Books. Quantum suicide and immortality. Thought experiment Quantum suicide is a thought experiment in quantum mechanics and the philosophy of physics. Purportedly, it can falsify any interpretation of quantum mechanics other than the Everett many-worlds interpretation by means of a variation of the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment, from the cat's point of view. Quantum immortality refers to the subjective experience of surviving quantum suicide. This concept is sometimes conjectured to be applicable to real-world causes of death as well.[1][2] Most experts hold that neither the experiment nor the related idea of immortality would work in the real world.

As a thought experiment, quantum suicide is an intellectual exercise in which an abstract setup is followed through to its logical consequences merely to prove a theoretical point. History[edit] Hugh Everett did not mention quantum suicide or quantum immortality in writing; his work was intended as a solution to the paradoxes of quantum mechanics. Thought experiment[edit] Philosophy. Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with reality, existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.[1][2] Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument.[3] In more casual speech, by extension, "philosophy" can refer to "the most basic beliefs, concepts, and attitudes of an individual or group".[4] The word "philosophy" comes from the Ancient Greek φιλοσοφία (philosophia), which literally means "love of wisdom".[5][6][7] The introduction of the terms "philosopher" and "philosophy" has been ascribed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras.[8] Areas of inquiry Philosophy is divided into many sub-fields.

These include epistemology, logic, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics.[9][10] Some of the major areas of study are considered individually below. Epistemology Rationalism is the emphasis on reasoning as a source of knowledge. Logic. Philosophy (disambiguation) Philosophical theory. In the general sense, a philosophical position[1] is a position that explains or accounts for a general philosophy or specific branch of philosophy.The use of the term theory here is a statement of colloquial English and not reflective of the term theory. [2] While any sort of thesis or opinion may be termed a position, in analytic philosophy it is thought best to reserve the word "theory" for systematic, comprehensive attempts to solve problems.[3] Some examples of philosophical positions include: Philosophical positions may also take the form of a life stance, religion, world view, or ideology.

A scientific theory however, is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment. See also[edit] References[edit] Philosophy. Logical positivism. Yoga (philosophy) One of six schools of Hindu philosophy Yoga-practice is also mentioned in foundational texts of other orthodox schools such as the Vaisesikha Sutras, Nyaya Sutras and Brahma Sutras. The Samkhya-Yoga system espouses dualism between consciousness and matter by postulating two "irreducible, innate and independent realities: Purusha and Prakriti. While the Prakriti is a single entity, the Samkhya-Yoga schools admit a plurality of the Puruṣas in this world. Unintelligent, unmanifest, uncaused, ever-active, imperceptible and eternal Prakriti is alone the final source of the world of objects.

The Puruṣa is considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (bhokta) and the Prakriti is the enjoyed (bhogya). Samkhya-Yoga believes that the Puruṣa cannot be regarded as the source of inanimate world, because an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. This metaphysics is a pluralistic spiritualism, a form of realism built on the foundation of dualism. Websources. Hindu philosophy. Hindu philosophy is traditionally divided into six āstika (Sanskrit: आस्तिक "orthodox") schools of thought,[1] or darśanam (दर्शनम्, "view"), which accept the Vedas as authoritative texts.[2] Four other nāstika (नास्तिक "heterodox") schools don't draw upon the Vedas as authoritative texts, and develop their own traditions of thought.

The āstika schools are: The nāstika schools are (in chronological order): Cārvāka, a materialism school that accepted free will existsĀjīvika, a materialism school that denied free will exists Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive epistemological literature called Pramana-sastras.[3][4] In Hindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the Gupta period "golden age" of Hinduism. Overview[edit] Epistemology[edit] Epistemology in Hindu philosophy is called Pramāṇa (Sanskrit: प्रमाण).[5] It is a key, much debated field of study in Hinduism since ancient times. Classifications and characteristics[edit] Samkhya[edit] Yoga[edit] Stoicism. Philosophical system Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BCE.

It is a philosophy of personal virtue ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world, asserting that the practice of virtue is both necessary and sufficient to achieve eudaimonia (happiness, lit. 'good spiritedness'): one flourishes by living an ethical life. The Stoics identified the path to eudaimonia with a life spent practicing virtue and living in accordance with nature. Stoicism flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3rd century CE, and among its adherents was Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It experienced a decline after Christianity became the state religion in the 4th century CE.

History[edit] Scholars[who?] Philosophical system[edit] Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man, otherwise it would be admitting something that lies beyond its proper subject-matter. Logic[edit] Categories[edit] Hedonism. Ethical hedonism is the idea that all people have the right to do everything in their power to achieve the greatest amount of pleasure possible to them. It is also the idea that every person's pleasure should far surpass their amount of pain. Ethical hedonism is said to have been started by a student of Socrates, Aristippus of Cyrene. He held the idea that pleasure is the highest good.[2] Etymology[edit] The name derives from the Greek word for "delight" (ἡδονισμός hēdonismos from ἡδονή hēdonē "pleasure", cognate with English sweet + suffix -ισμός -ismos "ism"). History of development[edit] Sumerian civilization[edit] In the original Old Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh, which was written soon after the invention of writing, Siduri gave the following advice "Fill your belly.

Ancient Egypt[edit] Let thy desire flourish, In order to let thy heart forget the beatifications for thee. Cārvāka[edit] Classic schools of antiquity[edit] The Cyrenaic school[edit] Aristippus of Cyrene. Eastern philosophy. Set of philosophies originating in Asia Eastern philosophy or Asian philosophy includes the various philosophies that originated in East and South Asia, including Chinese philosophy, Japanese philosophy, Korean philosophy, and Vietnamese philosophy; all of these are dominant in East Asia and Vietnam,[1] and Indian philosophy (including Hindu philosophy, Jain philosophy, Buddhist philosophy), which are dominant in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Tibet, and Mongolia.[2][3] Indian philosophy[edit] Indian philosophy refers to ancient philosophical traditions (Sanskrit: dárśana; 'world views', 'teachings')[4] of the Indian subcontinent. Later developments include the development of Tantra and Iranian-Islamic influences.

Orthodox schools[edit] Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive epistemological literature called Pramana-sastras.[39][40] In Hindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the Gupta period "golden age" of Hinduism. Sāmkhya and Yoga[edit] Nyāya[edit] Panpsychism. Modal realism. Counterpart theory. Many-minds interpretation. Mentalism (philosophy) Hard problem of consciousness. Platonism. New mysterianism. Explanatory gap. Non sequitur (logic) Thought experiment. Postmodernism. Brain in a vat. Hindu philosophy. Hannah Arendt. Solipsism.

Zeitgeist.